Stonewall inn editions keith kahla, general editor

Buddies by Ethan Mordden

 

Joseph and the Old Man

 

by Christopher Davis

Blackbird by Larry Duplechan

Gay Priest by Malcolm Boyd

 

One Last Waltz

 

by Ethan Mordden

 

Gay Spirit

 

by Mark Thompson, ed.

 

Valley of the Shadow

 

by Christopher Davis

Love Alone by Paul Monette

 

On Being Gay

 

by Brian McNaught

 

Everybody Loves You

 

by Ethan Mordden

 

Untold Decades by Robert Patrick

 

Gay & Lesbian Poetry in Our Time

 

by Carl Morse and Joan Larkin, eds.

 

Tangled Up in Blue

 

by Larry Duplechan

 

How to Go to the Movies

 

by Quentin Crisp

 

The Body and Its Dangers

 

and Other Stories

 

by Allen Barnett

 

Dancing on Tisha B’Av

 

by Lev Raphael

 

Arena of Masculinity

 

by Brian Pronger

 

Boys Like Us by Peter McGehee

 

Don’t Be Afraid Anymore

 

by Reverend Troy D. Perry

 

with Thomas L. P. Swicegood

 

The Death of Donna-May Dean

 

by Joey Manley

 

Latin Moon in Manhattan

 

by Jaime Manrique

 

On Ships at Sea

 

by Madelyn Arnold

 

The Dream Life by Bo Huston

 

Show Me the Way to Go Home

 

by Simmons Jones

 

Winter Eyes by Lev Raphael

 

Boys on the Rock by John Fox

 

End of the Empire

 

by Denise Ohio

 

Tom of Finland

 

by F. Valentine Hooven III

 

Reports from the Holocaust,

 

revised edition by Larry Kramer

 

Created Equal by Michael Nava

 

and Robert Dawidoff

 

Gay Issues in the Workplace

 

by Brian McNaught

 

Sportsdykes by Susan Fox Rogers, ed.

 

Sacred Lips of the Bronx

 

by Douglas Sadownick

 

West of Yesterday, East of Summer

 

by Paul Monette

 

I’ve a Feeling We’re Not in Kansas Anymore

 

by Ethan Mordden

 

Another Mother by Ruthann Robson

 

Close Calls by Susan Fox Rogers, ed.

 

How Long Has This Been Going On?

 

by Ethan Mordden

 

My Worst Date by David Leddick

Girljock: The Book by Roxxie, ed.

 

The Necessary Hunger by Nina Revoyr

Call Me by P. P. Hartnett

 

My Father’s Scar by Michael Cart

 

Getting Off Clean

 

by Timothy Murphy

 

Mongrel by Justin Chin

 

Now That I’m Out, What Do I Do?

 

by Brian McNaught

 

Some Men Are Lookers

 

by Ethan Mordden

a/k/a by Ruthann Robson

 

Execution, Texas: 1987

 

by D. Travers Scott

 

Gay Body by Mark Thompson

 

The Venice Adriana by Ethan Mordden

 

Women on the Verge

 

by Susan Fox Rogers, ed.

 

An Arrow’s Flight by Mark Merlis

 

Glove Puppet by Neal Drinnan

 

The Pleasure Principle by Michael Bronski

 

And the Band Played On

 

by Randy Shilts

 

Biological Exuberance

 

by Bruce Bagemihl

 

The Sex Squad by David Leddick

 

“Bagemihl’s monumental Biological Exuberance embraces paradox and celebrates seemingly incompatible phenomena while forging a compelling argument about the very essence of existence …. It is a landmark in the literature of science.”

— Chicago Tribune

 

“A brilliant and important exercise in exposing the limitations of received opinion, this book presents to the lay reader and specialist alike an exhaustively argued case that animals have multiple shades of sexual orientation …. What might so easily have turned into a tub-thumping activist tract hitched to the need for acceptance of homosexuality in humans is instead elevated to a hugely inclusive, celebratory biological interpretation of the world.”

— Publishers Weekly (starred review)

 

“ Biological Exuberance is a welcome antidote to the deluge of zoological research which equates sex with reproduction. It contains a wealth of information and is truly impressive in terms of its scope and its depth. Bagemihl avoids pat explanations in favor of rich analyses that do real justice to the complexities of his subject matter. His treatment of homophobia and heterocentrism in zoology is both brave and honest. Biological Exuberance will surely be considered the definitive source on the subject of nonreproductive sexual behavior in animals for many years to come and could well prove to be a watershed in terms of future research in this area.”

—Dr. Paul L. Vasey, zoologist, Concordia University

 

“Now and then a work comes along and firebombs a set of passionately held convictions …. Biological Exuberance, while not exactly a scientific revolution, is at least fodder for a stunning paradigm shift, this time in the realm of animal sexuality, and ultimately, human sexuality. It does, in fact, challenge our whole notion of the word ‘natural.’”

— Gear magazine

 

“In an encyclopedic tour de force, Bruce Bagemihl demonstrates just how natural homosexuality actually is …. As interesting as this catalog is, the task Bagemihl sets out for himself is far more fascinating. In the first half of his book, he takes as close a look at the scientists who have studied animal behavior as he does at the behavior they have studied …. We see how even well-meaning scientists bring culturally determined, preconceived biases to their research …. In the face of such homophobia in the scientific arena and in light of the amount of data he has amassed, it would not have been surprising if Bagemihl had turned his text into a piece of potent political writing, arguing that his data demand acceptance of homosexuality in humans. Instead, he allows the scientific record to speak for itself, and it certainly speaks more powerfully than could any political tract.”

—Dr. Michael Zimmerman, biologist, author of Science, Nonscience, and Nonsense

 

“Bagemihl’s work is tinged with comedy as he describes how biologists and zoologists have for years stifled or skirted the fact that animals under their observation are up to all sorts of naughtiness … his book is more than a polemic of sexual politics or a queering of zoology …. Instead Bagemihl is more or less taking the recent revolution in attitudes to human sexuality into the ‘natural’ world.”

— The Times Higher Education Supplement (London)

 

“There are certain books that seem, as soon as they have appeared, to have been nothing less than predestined. Biological Exuberance is just such a work. It’s a masterpiece of unconscious humor … alternately indignant about the way the truth about animal homosexuality has been suppressed in the past and rhapsodic about its riches around the world … [With] page after page of irresistible entertainment …this book has a lot to add to the gaiety of nations.”

— Evening Standard (London)

 

“Biologist Bruce Bagemihl has ‘outed’ nature and brought it into a post-Darwinian, gay-friendly world …. General readers will find the text elegantly written, convincing, and extremely engaging. The photographs and illustrations documenting sexual diversity also make it an unusual coffee table book.”

— Washington Blade

 

“Much, much more fun than reading E. O. Wilson. A thoroughly researched refutation of the attitudes of sociobiology … It pops the Victorianism out of Darwinism and muscles the uptight, mechanical model of evolution toward a more accurate understanding of Nature’s version as sloppy and exuberant …. I haven’t read a more stimulating book in biology in a decade.”

—Dr. Peter Warshall, biologist and editor, Whole Earth magazine

 

“The topic is hot stuff, and it could have easily generated some superficial and even sensationalistic pop biology. Instead, Bruce Bagemihl has produced a lengthy, scholarly, and multifaceted work …. In an era when increasing numbers of people grow up in urban environments with little contact with nature, it is important that biologists transmit to each new generation the capacity to marvel at the extravagance of nature. The author’s contribution is to show that animal sexual behavior may well be another manifestation of this same richness and therefore equally deserving of appreciation and wonder.”

—Dr. Elizabeth Adkins-Regan, zoologist, Cornell University

 

“Bagemihl [has] produced one phenomenal book on gay, lesbian, bisexual, and transgendered animal life …. Fascinating, page-turning in its own way, and full of pictures of homosexual matings and sexual congress among our furry and feathered friends, Biological Exuberance is one of the most readable scientifically based books of the year. Get this one. It is amazing.”

—barnesandnoble.com (official review)

 

“In this astounding book, Bruce Bagemihl shows that homosexuality is little short of ubiquitous in nature …. Bagemihl draws on, and persuasively interprets, a vast amount of data, going back many decades … [and] is eloquent about the wrongheadedness of the dominance argument …. It’s a small criticism of Biological Exuberance to say that it comprises two or three books—only one of them a world-changing piece of work.”

— The Observer (London), Literary Editor’s selection

 

“Bagemihl amasses a wealth of information on these topics [homosexuality and nonreproductive heterosexuality], which he manages to present in an accessible yet scholarly manner …. I recommend this book to anyone interested in animal sexual behavior.”

— Animal Behaviour

 

“What humans share with so many other animals, it now appears, is freewheeling homosexuality …. According to Bagemihl, the animal kingdom is a more sexually complex place than most people know …. Bagemihl’s ideas have caused a stir in the higher, human community …. For a love that long dared not speak its name, animal homosexuality is astonishingly common.”

— Time

 

“In his new book Biological Exuberance, author Bruce Bagemihl portrays an animal kingdom that embraces a whole spectrum of sexual orientation. From female grizzly bears coparenting their cubs to trysting male lions fending off other envious males, the book paints a complex mosaic that resembles humanity …. Biological Exuberance brings the dusty facts to light as Bagemihl deconstructs the all-heterosexual Noah’s Ark we’ve been sold.”

— The Advocate

 

“Bruce Bagemihl … throws you straight into the gay underworld of animals … He’s a driven man, this author, and it soon becomes clear that … he is taking revenge on centuries of homophobia among scientists, who have chosen to marginalize or ignore homosexual behavior among animals. And as I read the book, I felt myself being caught up in his sense of injustice …. This book does leave you feeling enriched, as well as slightly shocked at the true raunchiness of the animal kingdom.”

— Mail on Sunday (London)

 

“It seems to me that this book should have been unnecessary. But there has been such a lengthy and deafening silence on this enormous subject, the sexual behavior of animals, that the first revolutionary survey of the scientific literature had to be over 700 pages long! And it is a splendid job, massive enough to fill the gap of the centuries, comprehensive enough to address every question which comes to mind after the initial awakening triggered by the front cover alone.”

—Dr. Ralph Abraham, chaos scientist

 

“For anyone who has ever doubted the ‘naturalness’ of homosexual, bisexual, and transgendered behaviors, this remarkable book—which demonstrates and celebrates the sexual diversity of life on earth—will surely lay those doubts to rest. The massive evidence of the wondrous complexity of sexuality in the natural world that Bagemihl has marshaled will inform, entertain, and persuade academic and lay readers alike. Biological Exuberance is a revolutionary work.”

—Dr. Lillian Faderman, historian, author of Odd Girls and Twilight Lovers

 

“A scholarly, exhaustive, and utterly convincing refutation of the notion that human homosexuality is an aberration in nature …. Bagemihl does realize that some among us will never be convinced that homosexuality occurs freely and frequently in nature. But his meticulously gathered, cogently delivered evidence will quash any arguments to the contrary.”

— Kirkus Reviews

 

 

Appendix: Other Species

The following is a partial list of other species in which homosexual behavior has been documented, including reptiles/amphibians, fishes, insects and other invertebrates, and domesticated animals.

Abbreviations are used to indicate the general type of homosexuality (and in some cases, transgender) for each species:

 

F = female homosexuality

 

M = male homosexuality

 

FTvM = female-to-male transvestism

 

MTvF = male-to-female transvestism

 

P = parthenogenesis

 

 

References

 

Reptiles and Amphibians

Arnold, S. J. (1976) “Sexual Behavior, Sexual Interference, and Sexual Defense in the Salamanders Ambystoma maculatum, Ambystoma trigrinum, and Plethodon jordani.” Zeitschrift für Tierpsychologie 42:247–300.

Bulova, S. J. (1994) “Patterns of Burrow Use by Desert Tortoises: Gender Differences and Seasonal Trends.” Herpetological Monographs 8:133–43.

Cole, C. J., and C. R. Townsend (1983) “Sexual Behavior in Unisexual Lizards.” Animal Behavior 31:724–28.

Crews, D., and K. T. Fitzgerald (1980) “‘Sexual’ Behavior in Parthenogenetic Lizards (Cnemidophorous).” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 77:499–502.

Crews, D., and L. J. Young (1991) “Pseudocopulation in Nature in a Unisexual Whiptail Lizard.” Animal Behavior 42:512–14.

Crews, D., J. E. Gustafson, and R. R. Tokarz (1983) “Psychobiology of Parthenogenesis.” In R. B. Huey, E. R. Pianka, and T. W. Schoener, eds., Lizard Ecology: Studies of a Model Organism, pp. 205–31. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.

Eifler, D. A. (1993) “Cnemidophorus uniparens (Desert Grassland Whiptail). Behavior.” Herpetological Review 24:150.

Greenberg, B. (1943) “Social Behavior of the Western Banded Gecko, Coleonyx variegatus Baird.” Physiological Zoology 16:110–22.

Hansen, R. M. (1950) “Sexual Behavior in Two Male Gopher Snakes.” Herpetologica 6:120.

Jenssen, T. A., and E. A. Hovde (1993) “Anolis carolinensis (Green Anole). Social Pathology.” Herpetological Review 24:58–59.

Kaufmann, J. H. (1992) “The Social Behavior of Wood Turtles, Clemmys insculpta, in Central Pennsylvania.” Herpetological Monographs 6:1–25.

Klauber, L. M. (1972) Rattlesnakes: Their Habits, Life Histories, and Influence on Mankind. Vol. 1. Berkeley: University of California Press.

Liu, Ch’eng-Chao (1931) “Sexual Behavior in the Siberian Toad, Bufo raddei and the Pond Frog, Rana ni-gromaculata.” Peking Natural History Bulletin 6:43-60.

Mason, R. T. (1993) “Chemical Ecology of the Red-Sided Garter Snake, Thamnophis sirtalis parietalis.” Brain Behavior and Evolution 41:261-68.

Mason, R. T., and D. Crews (1985) “Female Mimicry in Garter Snakes.” Nature 316:59–60.

Mason, R. T., H. M Fales, T. H. Jones, L. K. Pannell, J. W. Chinn, and D. Crews (1989) “Sex Pheromones in Snakes.” Science 245:290-93.

McCoid, M. J., and R. A. Hensley (1991) “Pseudocopulation in Lepidodactylus lugubris.” Herpetological Review 22:8-9.

Moehn, L. D. (1986) “Pseudocopulation in Eumeces laticeps.” Herpetological Review 17:40–41.

Moore, M. C., J. M. Whittier, A. J. Billy, and D. Crews (1985) “Male-like Behavior in an All-Female Lizard: Relationship to Ovarian Cycle.” Animal Behavior 33:284-89.

Mount, R. H. (1963) “The Natural History of the Red-Tailed Skink, Eumeces egregius Baird.” American Midland Naturalist 70:356–85.

Niblick, H. A., D. C. Rostal, and T. Classen (1994) “Role of Male-Male Interactions and Female Choice in the Mating System of the Desert Tortoise, Gopherus agassizii.” Herpetological Monographs 8:124–32.

Noble, G. K. (1937) “The Sense Organs Involved in the Courtship of Storeria, Thamnophis, and Other Snakes.” Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History 73:673–725.

Noble, G. K., and H. T. Bradley (1933) “The Mating Behavior of Lizards; Its Bearing on the Theory of Sexual Selection.” Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 35:25–100.

Organ, J. A. (1958) “Courtship and Spermatophore of Plethodon jordani metcalfi” Copeia 1958:251-59.

Paulissen, M. A., and J. M. Walker (1989) “Pseudocopulation in the Parthenogenetic Whiptail Lizard Cneimidophorous laredoensis (Teiidae).” Southwestern Naturalist 34:296-98.

Shaw, C. E. (1951) “Male Combat in American Colubrid Snakes With Remarks on Combat in Other Colubrid and Elapid Snakes.” Herpetologica 7:149–68.

———(1948) “The Male Combat ‘Dance’ of Some Crotalid Snakes.” Herpetologica 4:137–45.

Tinkle, D. W. (1967) The Life and Demography of the Side-blotched Lizard, Uta stansburiana. Miscellaneous Publications, Museum of Zoology, no. 132. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan.

Trivers, R. L. (1976) “Sexual Selection and Resource-Accruing Abilities in Anolis garmani.” Evolution 30:253–69.

Verrell, P., and A. Donovan (1991) “Male-Male Aggression in the Plethodontid Salamander Desmognathus ochrophaeus.” Journal of Zoology 223:203–12.

Werner, Y. L. (1980) “Apparent Homosexual Behavior in an All-Female Population of a Lizard, Lepidodactylus lugubris and Its Probable Interpretation.” Zeitschrift für Tierpsychologie 54:144–50.

 

Fishes

Aronson, L. R. (1948) “Problems in the Behavior and Physiology of a Species of African Mouthbreeding Fish.” Transactions of the New York Academy of Sciences 2:33–42.

Barlow, G. W. (1967) “Social Behavior of a South American Leaf Fish, Polycentrus schomburgkii, with an Account of Recurring Pseudofemale Behavior.” American Midland Naturalist 78:215–34.

Carranza, J., and H. E. Winn (1954) “Reproductive Behavior of the Blackstripe Topminnow, Fundulus notatus.” Copeia 4:273–78.

Dobler, M., 1. Schlupp, and J. Parzefall (1997) “Changes in Mate Choice with Spontaneous Masculinization in Poecilia formosa.” In M. Taborsky and B. Taborsky, eds., Contributions to the XXV International Ethological Conference, p. 204. Advances in Ethology no. 32. Berlin: Blackwell Wissenschafts-Verlag.

Dominey, W. J. (1980) “Female Mimicry in Male Bluegill Sunfish—a Genetic Polymorphism?” Nature 284:546–48.

Duyvené de Wit, J. J. (1955) “Some Observations on the European Bitterling (Rhodeus amarus).” South African Journal of Science 51:249–51.

Fabricius, E. (1953) “Aquarium Observations on the Spawning Behavior of the Char, Salmo alpinus.” Institute of Freshwater Research, Drottningholm, report 35:14–48.

Fabricius, E., and K.-J. Gustafson (1955) Observations on the Spawning Behavior of the Grayling, Thymallus thymallus (L.).” Institute of Freshwater Research, Drottningholm, report 36:75–103.

———(1954) “Further Aquarium Observations on the Spawning Behavior of the Char, Salmo alpinus L.” Institute of Freshwater Research, Drottningholm, report 35:58-104.

Fabricius, E., and A. Lindroth (1954) “Experimental Observations on the Spawning of the Whitefish, Coregonus lavaretus L., in the Stream Aquarium of the Hölle Laboratory at River Indalsälven.” Institute of Freshwater Research, Drottningholm, report 35:105–12.

Greenberg, B. (1961) “Spawning and Parental Behavior in Female Pairs of the Jewel Fish, Hemichromis bi-maculatus Gill.” Behavior 18:44–61.

Morris, D. (1952) “Homosexuality in the Ten-Spined Stickleback.” Behavior 4:233–61.

Petravicz, J. J. (1936) “The Breeding Habits of the Least Darter, Microperca punctulata Putnam.” Copeia 1936:77–82.

Schlosberg, H., M. C. Duncan, and B. Daitch (1949) “Mating Behavior of Two Live-bearing Fish Xiphophorous helleri and Platypoecilus maculatus.” Physiological Zoology 22:148–61.

Schlupp, I., J. Parzefall, J. T. Epplen, I. Nanda, M. Schmid, and M. Schartl (1992) “Pseudomale Behavior and Spontaneous Masculinization in the All-Female Teleost Poecilia formosa (Teleostei: Poeciliidae).” Behavior 122:88–104.

 

Insects

Aiken, R. B. (1981) “The Relationship Between Body Weight and Homosexual Mounting in Palmacorixa nana Walley (Heteroptera: Corixidae).” Florida Entomologist 64:267–71.

Alcock, J. (1993) “Male Mate-Locating Behavior in Two Australian Butterflies, Anaphaeis java teutonia (Fabricius) (Pieridae) and Acraea andromacha andromacha (Fabricius) (Nymphalidae).” Journal of Research on the Lepidoptera 32:1–7.

Alcock, J., and S. L. Buchmann (1985) “The Significance of Post-Insemination Display by Males of Centris pallida (Hymenoptera: Anthophoridae).” Zeitschrift für Tierpsychologie 68:231–43.

Alexander, R. D. (1961) “Aggressiveness, Territoriality, and Sexual Behavior in Field Crickets (Orthoptera: Gryllidae).” Behavior 17:130–223.

Allsopp, P. G., and T. A. Morgan (1991) “Male-Male Copulation in Antitrogus consanguineus (Blackburn) (Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae).” Australian Entomological Magazine 18(4):147–48.

Anderson, J. R., A. C. Nilssen, and I. Folstad (1994) “Mating Behavior and Thermoregulation of the Reindeer Warble Fly, Hypoderma tarandi L. (Diptera: Oestridae).” Journal of Insect Behavior 7:679–706.

Arita, L. H., and K. Y. Kaneshiro (1983) “Pseudomale Courtship Behavior of the Female Mediterranean Fruit Fly, Ceratitis capitata (Wiedemann).” Proceedings of the Hawaiian Entomological Society 24:205–10.

Barrows, E. M., and G. Gordh (1978) “Sexual Behavior in the Japanese Beetle, Popillia japonica, and Comparative Notes on Sexual Behavior of Other Scarabs (Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae).” Behavioral Biology 23:341–54.

Barth, R. H., Jr. (1964) “Mating Behavior of Byrsotria fumigata (Guerin) (Blattidae, Blaberinea).” Behavior 23:1–30.

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Heatwole, H., D. M. Davis, and A. M. Wenner (1962) “The Behavior of Megarhyssa, a Genus of Parasitic Hymenopterans (Ichneumonidae: Ephilatinae).” Zeitschrift für Tierpsychologie 19:652–64.

Henry, C. (1979) “Acoustical Communication During Courtship and Mating in the Green Lacewing, Chrysopa carnea (Neuroptera; Chrysopidae).” Annals of the Entomological Society of America 72:68–79.

Humphries, D. A. (1967) “The Mating Behavior of the Hen Flea Ceratophyllus gallinae (Schrank) (Siphonaptera: Insecta).” Animal Behavior 15:82–90.

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Leong, K. L. H., E. O’Brien, K. Lowerisen, and M. Colleran (1995) “Mating Activity and Status of Overwintering Monarch Butterflies (Lepidoptera: Danaidae) in Central California.” Annals of the Entomological Society of America 88:45–50.

Loher, W., and H. T. Gordon (1968) “The Maturation of Sexual Behavior in a New Strain of the Large Milkweed Bug Oncopeltus fasciatus.” Annals of the Entomological Society of America 61:1566–72.

Mathieu, J. (1967) “Mating Behavior of Five Species of Lucanidae (Coleoptera: Insecta).” American Zoologist 7:206.

Matthiesen, F. A. (1990) “Comportamento sexuale outros aspectos biologicos da barata selvagem, Petasodes dominicana Burmeister, 1839 (Dictyoptera, Blaberidae, Blaberinae).” Revista Brasileira de Entomologia 34(2):261–66.

Maze, A. (1884) “Communication.” Journal officiel de la République française 2:2103.

McRobert, S., and L. Tompkins (1988) “Two Consequences of Homosexual Courtship Performed by Drosophila melanogaster and Drosophila affinis Males.” Evolution 42:1093–97.

———(1983) “Courtship of Young Males Is Ubiquitous in Drosophila melanogaster.” Behavior Genetics 13:517–23.

Mika, G. (1959) “Uber das Paarungsverhalten der Wanderheuschrecke Locusta migratoria R. und F. und deren Abhängigkeit vom Zustand der inneren Geschlechtsorgane.” Zoologische Beiträge 4:153–203.

Nakamura, H. (1969) “Comparative Studies on the Mating Behavior of Two Species of Callosobruchus (Coleoptera: Bruchidae).” Japanese Journal of Ecology 19:20–26.

Napolitano, L. M., and L. Tompkins (1989) “Neural Control of Homosexual Courtship in Drosophila melanogaster.” Journal of Neurogenetics 6:87–94.

Noel, P. (1895) “Accouplements anormaux chez les insectes.” Miscellanea entomologica 1:114.

Obara, Y. (1970) “Studies on the Mating Behavior of the White Cabbage Butterfly, Pieris rapae crucivora Boisduval. III. Near-Ultra-Violet Reflection as the Signal of Intraspecific Communication.” Zeitschrift für vergleichende Physiologie 69:99–116.

Obara, Y., and T. Hidaka (1964) “Mating Behavior of the Cabbage White, Pieris rapae crucivora. I. The ‘Flutter Response’ of the Resting Male to Flying Males.” Zoological Magazine (Dobutsugaku Zasshi) 73:131–35.

O’Neill, K. M. (1994) “The Male Mating Strategy of the Ant Formica subpolita Mayr (Hymenoptera: Formicidae): Swarming, Mating, and Predation Risk.” Psyche 101:93–108.

Palaniswamy, P., W. D. Seabrook, and R. Ross (1979) “Precopulatory Behavior of Males and Perception of Potential Male Pheromone in Spruce Budworm, Choristoneura fumiferana.” Annals of the Entomological Society of America 72:544–51.

Pardi, L. (1987) “La ‘pseudocopula’ delle femmine di Otiorrhynchus pupillatus cyclophtalmus (Sol.) (Coleoptera Curculionidae).” Bollettino dell’Istituto di Entomologia “Guido Grandi” della Università degli Studi di Bologna 41:355–63.

Parker, G. A. (1968) “The Sexual Behavior of the Blowfly, Protophormia terraenovae R.-D.” Behavior 32:291–308.

Peschke, K. (1987) “Male Aggression, Female Mimicry and Female Choice in the Rove Beetle, Aleochara curtula (Coleoptera, Staphylinidae).” Ethology 75:265–84.

Pinto, J. D., and R. B. Selander (1970) The Bionomics of Blister Beetles of the Genus Meloe and a Classification of the New World Species. University of Illinois Biological Monographs no. 42. Urbana: University of Illinois Press.

Piper, G. L. (1976) “Bionomics of Euarestoides acutangulus (Diptera: Tephritidae).” Annals of the Entomological Society of America 69:381–86.

Prokopy, R. J., and J. Hendrichs (1979) “Mating Behavior of Ceratitis capitata on a Field-Caged Host Tree.” Annals of the Entomological Society of America 72:642–48.

Qvick, U. (1984) “A Case of Abnormal Mating Behavior of Dolichopus popularis Wied. (Diptera, Dolichopodidae).” Notulae Entomologicae 64:93.

Rich, E. (1989) “Homosexual Behavior in Three Melanic Mutants of Tribolium castaneum.” Tribolium Information Bulletin 29:99–101.

Rocha, I. R. D. (1991) “Relationship Between Homosexuality and Dominance in the Cockroaches, Nauphoeta cinerea and Henchoustedenia flexivitta (Dictyoptera, Blaberidae).” Revista Brasileira de Entomologia 35(1):1–8.

Rothschild, M. (1978) “Hell’s Angels.” Antenna 2:38–39.

Sanders, C. J. (1975) “Factors Affecting Adult Emergence and Mating Behavior of the Eastern Spruce Budworm, Choristoneura fumiferana (Lepidoptera: Totricidae).” Canadian Entomologist 107:967–77.

Schaner, A. M., P. D. Dixon, K. J. Graham, and L. L. Jackson (1989) “Components of the Courtship-Stimulating Pheromone Blend of Young Male Drosophila melanogaster: (Z)-13-tritriacontene and (Z)-11-tritriacontene.” Journal of Insect Physiology 35:341–45.

Schlein, Y., R. Galun, and M. N. Ben-Eliahu (1981) “Abstinons: Male-Produced Deterrents of Mating in Flies.” Journal of Chemical Ecology 7:285–90.

Schmieder-Wenzel, C., and G. Schruft (1990) “Courtship Behavior of the European Grape Berry Moth, Eu-poecilia ambiguella Hb. (Lepidoptera, Tortricidae) in Regard to Pheromonal and Tactile Stimuli.” Journal of Applied Entomology 109:341–46.

Serrano, J. M., L. Castro, M. A. Torro, and C. López-Fanjul (1991) “The Genetic Properties of Homosexual Copulation Behavior in Tribolium castaneum: Diallel Analysis.” Behavior Genetics 21:547–58.

Shah, N. K., M. C. Singer, and D. R. Syna (1986) “Occurrence of Homosexual Mating Pairs in a Checkerspot Butterfly.” Journal of Research on the Lepidoptera 24:393.

Shapiro, A. M. (1989) “Homosexual Pseudocopulation in Eucheira socialis (Pieridae).” Journal of Research on the Lepidoptera 27:262.

Simon, D., and R. H. Barth (1977) “Sexual Behavior in the Cockroach Genera Periplaneta and Blatta. I. Descriptive Aspects. II. Sex Pheromones and Behavioral Responses.” Zeitschrift für Tierpsychologie 44:80–107, 162–77.

Spence, J. R., and R. S. Wilcox (1986) “The Mating System of Two Hybridizing Species of Water Striders (Gerridae).” Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology 19:87–95.

Spratt, E. C. (1980) “Male Homosexual Behavior and Other Factors Influencing Adult Longevity in Tribolium castaneum (Herbst) and T. confusum Duval.” Journal of Stored Products Research 16:109–14.

Syrajämäki, J. (1964) “Swarming and Mating Behavior of Allochironomus crassiforceps Kieff. (Dipt., Chironomidae).” Annales Zoologici Fennici 1:125–45.

Tauber, M. J. (1968) “Biology, Behavior, and Emergence Rhythm of Two Species of Fannia (Diptera: Muscidae).” University of California Publications in Entomology 50:1–86.

Tauber, M. J., and C. Toschi (1965) “Bionomics of Euleia fratria (Loew) (Diptera: Tephritidae). I. Life History and Mating Behavior.” Canadian Journal of Zoology 43:369–79.

Tennent, W. J. (1987) “A Note on the Apparent Lowering of Moral Standards in the Lepidoptera.” Entomologist’s Record and Journal of Variation 99:81–83.

Tilden, J. W. (1981) “Attempted Mating Between Male Monarchs.” Journal of Research on the Lepidoptera 18:2.

Tompkins, L. (1989) “Homosexual Courtship in Drosophila.” MBL (Marine Biology Laboratory) Lectures in Biology (Woods Hole) 10:229–48.

Urquhart, F. (1987) The Monarch Butterfly: International Traveler. Chicago: Nelson–Hall.

———(1960) The Monarch Butterfly. Toronto: University of Toronto Press.

Utzeri, C., and C. Belfiore (1990) “Tandem anomali fra Odonati (Odonata).” Fragmenta Entomologica 22:271–87.

Vaias, L. J., L. M. Napolitano, and L. Tomkins (1993) “Identification of Stimuli that Mediate Experience-Dependent Modification of Homosexual Courtship in Drosphila melanogaster.” Behavior Genetics 23:91–97.

 

Spiders and Other Invertebrates

Abele, L. G., and S. Gilchrist (1977) “Homosexual Rape and Sexual Selection in Acanthocephalan Worms.” Science 197:81–83.

Bristowe, W. S. (1939) The Comity of Spiders. London: Ray Society.

———(1929) “The Mating Habits of Spiders with Special Reference to the Problems Surrounding Sex Dimorphism.” Proceedings of the Zoological Society of London 1929:309–58.

Gillespie, R. G. (1991) “Homosexual Mating Behavior in Male Doryonychus raptor (Araneae, Tetragnathi-dae).” Journal of Arachnology 19:229–30.

Jackson, R. R. (1982) “The Biology of Portia fimbriata, a Web-building Jumping Spider (Araneae, Saltici-dae) from Queensland: Intraspecific Interactions.” Journal of Zoology, London 196:295–305.

Kazmi, Q. B., and N. M. Tirmizi (1987) “An Unusual Behavior in Box Crabs (Decapoda, Brachyura, Calap-pidae).” Crustaceana 53:313–14.

Lutz, R. A., and J. R. Voight (1994) “Close Encounter in the Deep.” Nature 371:563.

Mirsky, S. (1995) “Armed and Amorous.” Wildlife Conservation 98(6):72.

Sturm, H. (1992) “Mating Behavior and Sexual Dimorphism in Promesomachilis hispanica Silvestri, 1923 (Machilidae, Archaeognatha, Insecta).” Zoologischer Anzeiger 228:60–73.

 

Domesticated Animals

Aronson, L. R. (1949) “Behavior Resembling Spontaneous Emissions in the Domestic Cat.” Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology 42:226—27.

Banks, E. M. (1964) “Some Aspects of Sexual Behavior in Domestic Sheep, Ovis aries.” Behavior 23:249–79.

Beach, F. A. (1971) “Hormonal Factors Controlling the Differentiation, Development, and Display of Copulatory Behavior in the Hamster and Related Species.” In E. Tobach, L. R. Aronson, and E. Shaw, eds., The Biopsychology of Development, pp. 249–96. New York: Academic Press.

Beach, F. A., and P. Rasquin (1942) “Masculine Copulatory Behavior in Intact and Castrated Female Rats.” Endocrinology 31:393-409.

Beach, F. A., C. M. Rogers, and B. J. LeBoeuf (1968) “Coital Behavior in Dogs: Effects of Estrogen on Mounting by Females.” Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology 66:296–307.

Blackshaw, J. K., A. W. Blackshaw, and J. J. McGlone (1997) “Buller Steer Syndrome Review.” Applied Animal Behavior Science 54:97–108.

Brockway, B. F. (1967) “Social and Experimental Influences of Nestbox-Oriented Behavior and Gonadal Activity of Female Budgerigars (Melopsittacus undulatus Shaw).” Behavior 29:63–82.

Burley, N. (1981) “Sex Ratio Manipulation and Selection for Attractiveness.” Science 211:721–22.

Collias, N. E. (1956) “The Analysis of Socialization in Sheep and Goats.” Ecology 37:228–39.

Craig, J. V. (1981) Domestic Animal Behavior: Causes and Implications for Animal Care and Management. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall.

Craig, W. (1909) “The Voices of Pigeons Regarded as a Means of Social Control.” American Journal of Sociology 14:86-100.

Feist, J. D., and D. R. McCullough (1976) “Behavior Patterns and Communication in Feral Horses.” Zeitschrift für Tierpsychologie 41:337–71.

Ford, C. S., and F. A. Beach (1951) Patterns of Sexual Behavior. New York: Harper and Row.

Fuller, J. L., and E. M. DuBuis (1962) “The Behavior of Dogs.” In E. S. E. Hafez, ed., The Behavior of Domestic Animals, pp. 415–52. Baltimore: Williams and Wilkins.

Grant, E. C., and M. R. A. Chance (1958) “Rank Order in Caged Rats.” Animal Behavior 6:183–94.

Green, J. D., C. D. Clemente, and J. de Groot (1957) “Rhinencephalic Lesions and Behavior in Cats: An Analysis of the Klüver-Bucy Syndrome with Particular Reference to Normal and Abnormal Sexual Behavior.” Journal of Comparative Neurology 108:505–36.

Grubb, P. (1974) “Mating Activity and the Social Significance of Rams in a Feral Sheep Community.” In V. Geist and F. Walther, eds., Behavior in Ungulates and Its Relation to Management, vol. 1, pp. 457–76. Morges, Switzerland: International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources.

Guhl, A. M. (1948) “Unisexual Mating in a Flock of White Leghorn Hens.” Transactions of the Kansas Academy of Science 5:107–11.

Hale, E. B. (1955) “Defects in Sexual Behavior as Factors Affecting Fertility in Turkeys.” Poultry Science 34:1059–67.

Hale, E. B., and M. W. Schein (1962) “The Behavior of Turkeys.” In E. S. E. Hafez, ed., The Behavior of Domestic Animals, pp. 531-64. Baltimore: Williams and Wilkins.

Hulet, C. V., G. Alexander, and E. S. E. Hafez (1975) “The Behavior of Sheep.” In E. S. E. Hafez, ed., The Behavior of Domestic Animals, 3rd ed., pp. 246–94. London: Baillière Tindall.

Hurnik, J. F., G. J. King, and H. A. Robertson (1975) “Estrous and Related Behavior in Postpartum Holstein Cows.” Applied Animal Ethology 2:55–68.

Immelmann, K., J. P. Hailman, and J. R. Baylis (1982) “Reputed Band Attractiveness and Sex Manipulation in Zebra Finches.” Science 215:422.

Jefferies, D. J. (1967) “The Delay in Ovulation Produced by pp’-DDT and Its Possible Significance in the Field.” Ibis 109:266–72.

Kavanau, J. L. (1987) Lovebirds, Cockatiels, Budgerigars: Behavior and Evolution. Los Angeles: Science Software Systems.

Kawai, M. (1955) “The Dominance Hierarchy and Homosexual Behavior Observed in a Male Rabbit Group.” Dobutsu shinrigaku nenpo (Annual of Animal Psychology) 5:13–24.

King, J. A. (1954) “Closed Social Groups Among Domestic Dogs.” Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society 98:327–36.

Klemm, W. R., C. J. Sherry, L. M. Schake, and R. F. Sis (1983) “Homosexual Behavior in Feedlot Steers: An Aggression Hypothesis.” Applied Animal Ethology 11:187–95.

LeBoeuf, B. J. (1967) “Interindividual Associations in Dogs.” Behavior 29:268–95.

Leyhausen, P. (1979) Cat Behavior: The Predatory and Social Behavior of Domestic and Wild Cats. New York and London: Garland STPM Press.

Masatomi, H. (1959) “Attacking Behavior in Homosexual Groups of the Bengalee, Uroloncha striata var. domestica Flower.” Journal of the Faculty of Science, Hokkaido University (Series 6) 14:234–51.

———(1957) “Pseudomale Behavior in a Female Bengalee.” Journal of the Faculty of Science, Hokkaido University (Series 6) 13:187–91.

McDonnell, S. M., and J. C. S. Haviland (1995) “Agonistic Ethogram of the Equid Bachelor Band.” Applied Animal Behavior Science 43:147–88.

Michael, R. P. (1961) “Observations Upon the Sexual Behavior of the Domestic Cat (Felis catus L.) Under Laboratory Conditions.” Behavior 18:1–24.

Morris, D. (1954) “The Reproductive Behavior of the Zebra Finch (Poephila guttata), with Special Reference to Pseudofemale Behavior and Displacement Activities.” Behavior 6:271—322.

Mykytowycz, R., and E. R. Hesterman (1975) “An Experimental Study of Aggression in Captive European Rabbits, Oryctolagus cuniculus (L.).” Behavior 52:104-23.

Mylrea, P. J., and R. G. Beilharz (1964) “The Manifestation and Detection of Oestrus in Heifers.” Animal Behavior 12:25–30.

Perkins, A., J. A. Fitzgerald, and G. E. Moss (1995) “A Comparison of LH Secretion and Brain Estradiol Receptors in Heterosexual and Homosexual Rams and Female Sheep.” Hormones and Behavior 29:31—41.

Perkins, A., J. A. Fitzgerald, and E.O Price (1992) “Luteinizing Hormone and Testosterone Response of Sexually Active and Inactive Rams.” Journal of Animal Science 70:2086—93.

Prescott, R. G. W. (1970) “Mounting Behavior in the Female Cat.” Nature 228:1106—7.

Reinhardt, V. (1983) “Flehmen, Mounting, and Copulation Among Members of a Semi-Wild Cattle Herd.” Animal Behavior 31:641—50.

Resko, J. A., A. Perkins, C. E. Roselli, J. A. Fitzgerald, J. V.A. Choate, and F. Stormshak (1996) “Endocrine Correlates of Partner Preference in Rams.” Biology of Reproduction 55:120—26.

Rood, J. P. (1972) “Ecological and Behavioral Comparisons of Three Genera of Argentine Cavies.” Animal Behavior Monographs 5:1–83.

Rosenblatt, J. S., and T. C. Schneirla (1962) “The Behavior of Cats.” In E. S. E. Hafez, ed., The Behavior of Domestic Animals, pp. 453–88. Baltimore: Williams and Wilkins.

Schaller, G. B., and A. Laurie (1974) “Courtship Behavior of the Wild Goat.” Zeitschrift für Säugetierkunde 39:115–27.

Shank, C. C. (1972) “Some Aspects of Social Behavior in a Population of Feral Goats (Capra hircus L.).” Zeitschrift für Tierpsychologie 30:488–528.

Signoret, J. P., B. A. Baldwin, D. Fraser, and E. S. E. Hafez (1975) “The Behavior of Swine.” In E. S. E. Hafez, ed., The Behavior of Domestic Animals, 3rd ed., pp. 295–329. London: Baillière Tindall.

Tiefer, L. (1970) “Gonadal Hormones and Mating Behavior in the Adult Golden Hamster.” Hormones and Behavior 1:189–202.

van Oortmerssen, G.A. (1971) “Biological Significance, Genetics, and Evolutionary Origin of Variability in Behavior Within and Between Inbred Strains of Mice (Mus musculus) .” Behavior 38:1–92.

van Vliet, J. H., and E J. C. M. van Eerdenburg (1996) “Sexual Activities and Oestrus Detection in Lactating Holstein Cows.” Applied Animal Behavior Science 50:57–69.

Vasey, P. L. (1996) Personal communication.

Verberne, G., and F. Blom (1981) “Scentmarking, Dominance, and Territorial Behavior in Male Domestic Rabbits.” In K. Myers and C. D. Maclnnes, eds., Proceedings of the World Lagomorph Conference, pp. 280–90. Guelph: University of Guelph.

Whitman, C. O. (1919) The Behavior of Pigeons. Posthumous Works of C. O. Whitman, vol. 3. Washington, D.C.: Carnegie Institution of Washington.

Young, W. C., E. W. Dempsey, and H. 1. Myers (1935) “Cyclic Reproductive Behavior in the Female Guinea Pig.” Journal of Comparative Psychology 19:313–35.

 

 

Notes to Part I

When no specific references are noted for a particular species in part 1, the information and sources will be found in the profile itself in part 2. When a note is included for a profiled species (e.g., to provide more detailed information), the citation format includes the species name, author, year, and (in most cases) page numbers of the source, referring to the full references in the profile. References for species that are not profiled in part 2 are included directly in notes.

 

Introduction

1. Einstein, A. (1930) “What I Believe,” Forum and Century 84(4):193-94.

 

Chapter 1. The Birds and the Bees

Haldane, J. B. S. (1928) Possible Worlds and Other Papers, p. 298 (New York: Harper & Brothers).

Animal names that are capitalized refer to a species or group of closely related species that is profiled in part 2, or whose references are included in the appendix.

Homosexuality among primates, for example, has been traced back to at least the Oligocene epoch, 24-37 million years ago (based on its distribution among contemporary primates; Vasey 1995:195). Some scientists place its original appearance even earlier in the evolutionary line leading to mammals, at around 200 million years ago (Baker and Bellis 1995:5), and it has probably existed for much longer among other animal groups. Vasey, P. L. (1995) “Homosexual Behavior in Primates: A Review of Evidence and Theory,” International Journal of Primatology 16:173-204; Baker, R., and M. A. Bellis (1995) Human Sperm Competition: Copulation, Masturbation, and Infidelity (London: Chapman and Hall).

See note 29, as well as part 2 and the appendix, for more detailed tabulations (including discussion of species not included in this tally).

For further discussion of sexual orientation in animals, as well as comparisons between animal and human homosexuality, see chapter 2. Following Vasey (“Homosexual Behavior in Primates,” p. 175), the term homosexual is used to designate primarily the form of behaviors without necessarily implying anything about their “function or context or the actors’ ages and motivation.” For further consideration of the terminology used to describe same-sex activity in animals, including discussion of alternative definitions of the term homosexual(ity) as it is applied to animals (and some of the controversies that have surrounded its use in the zoological literature), see chapter 3. For more on the “functions” and contexts of homosexual behavior, see chapters 4-5.

Guianan Cock-of-the-Rock (Endler and Théry 1996); Anna’s Hummingbird (Hamilton 1965); Buff-breasted Sandpiper (Myers 1989).

For a general survey of play-fighting, see Aldis, O. (1975) Play Fighting. (New York: Academic Press).

Spinner Dolphin (Norris et al. 1994:250).

Ingestion of semen by both males and females during masturbation in heterosexual contexts also occurs among Golden Monkeys (Clarke 1991:371).

Supernormal clutches have also been reported for pairs of male Emus, probably because more than one female has laid in their nest. What might be termed “subnormal” clutches—i.e., nests containing fewer eggs than are usually found for heterosexual pairs—are reported for female pairs of Blue Tits. And “super-supernormal” clutches occasionally occur in heterosexual pairs of Roseate Terns: as a result of within-species parasitism and possibly also egg transfer (see chapter 5 for more on these phenomena), some nests contain more than double the number of eggs found even in supernormal clutches (as is also true for “dump” nests in many Ducks and Geese).

For discussion, and refutation, of the idea that same-sex pairs form in species such as these solely for the purpose of raising offspring, see chapter 5. In some birds such as grouse (e.g., sharp-tailed grouse, prairie chickens, white-tailed ptarmigan) and ducks (e.g., eiders, buffleheads) broods from more than one female are combined or “amalgamated” but no same-sex coparenting occurs (one female, or a heterosexual pair, look after all the offspring); cf. Bergerud and Gratson 1988:545 (Grouse); Afton 1993 (Ducks); Eadie, J. McA., E P. Kehoe, and T. D. Nudds (1988) “Pre-Hatch and Post-Hatch Brood Amalgamation in North American Anatidae: A Review of Hypotheses,” Canadian Journal of Zoology 66:1709-21.

Ring-billed Gull (Conover 1989:148).

In some bird species in which same-sex pairs are unable to obtain fertile eggs on their own (or in which homosexual parenting has yet to be observed in the wild), parenting skills have been demonstrated by supplying homosexual pairs with “foster” eggs or young in captivity. Same-sex pairs of Flamingos, White Storks, Black-headed Gulls, Steller’s Sea Eagles, Barn Owls, and Gentoo Penguins, for example, have all successfully hatched such eggs and/or raised foster chicks.

Black Swan (Braithwaite 1981:140—42); for more details, see chapter 5 and part 2.

Ring-billed Gull (Conover 1989:148); Western Gull (Hayward and Fry 1993:17—18); see chapter 2 for further discussion of same-sex pairs being limited to nonoptimal territories. Several other studies point to the possibility of more “attentive” parenting by female homosexual pairs. Researchers have found that female Ring-billed Gulls in same-sex pairs, for example, may have higher levels of progesterone—a female hormone associated with nest-building and incubation behavior—than females in heterosexual pairs (Kovacs and Ryder 1985); see chapter 4 for more on the hormonal profiles of animals involved in same-sex activity. In a related set of observations, some investigators have documented more “intense” nesting behavior in female homosexual pairs than heterosexual pairs in some captive studies. Allen and Erickson (1982:346, 350), for instance, found that female pairs of Ring Doves are more persistent incubators than heterosexual pairs, being less likely to abandon their nests and terminate incubation when they have infertile eggs than are heterosexual pairs. Brockway (1967:76) found that female Budgerigars in homosexual pairs begin continuous occupation of their nests significantly sooner than females in heterosexual pairs. However, because female pairs begin noncontinuous occupation of their nests significantly later than heterosexual pairs in this species, the overall amount of their nesting activity and the timing of their egg-laying essentially evens out.

See chapter 5 for further discussion of homosexual activity in communal groups and the often complex relationship between “helpers” and same-sex activity.

In many species, young may also be raised in heterosexual trios, i.e., family units with three parents in which only opposite-sex bonding is present between the adults. See chapter 5 for some examples.

For discussion of single parenting in animals where two (heterosexual) parents usually raise the young, as well as examples of other heterosexual parenting arrangements that deviate from the species-typical pattern, see chapter 5.

For additional discussion of male bias in biological studies, see chapters 3 and 5.

Rhesus Macaque (Altmann 1962:383; Lindburg 1971:69); Hamadryas Baboon (Abegglen 1984:63); Gelada Baboon (Bernstein 1970:94); Tasmanian Native Hen (Ridpath 1972:30); Gray-headed Flying Fox (Nelson 1965:546).

Pukeko (Jamieson and Craig 1987a:1251); Bonobo (Thompson-Handler et al. 1984:349; Kano 1992:187; Kitamura 1989:55—57); Stumptail Macaque (Chevalier-Skolnikoff 1974:101, 110); Red Deer (Hall 1983:278); Red-necked Wallaby (LaFollette 1971:96); Northern Quoll (Dempster 1995:29).

Pig-tailed Macaque (Oi 1990a:350—51): Galah (Rogers and McCulloch 1981); Pronghorn (Kitchen 1974:44).

Gorilla (Fischer and Nadler 1978:660—61; Yamagiwa 1987a:12, 1987b:37).

Pukeko (Jamieson and Craig 1987a:1251—52); Flamingo (C. E. King, personal communication). In Lesser Flamingos, however, the reverse appears to be true: males but not females achieve cloacal contact during their homosexual mounts (Alraun and Hewston 1997:176).

Japanese Macaque (Hanby 1974:838-40; Wolfe 1984:149; Fedigan 1982:143).

For further discussion of comparisons between animal and human homosexuality, see chapter 2.

These formulas are also used to estimate the number of bisexual/heterosexual trios in a population; see Conover and Aylor 1985:127 (Ring-billed Gull).

Kob (Buechner and Schloeth 1965); Long-tailed Hermit (Stiles and Wolf 1979). Likewise, up to 30 homosexual pairs of Herring Gulls have been counted in some locations—a relatively high number of same-sex associations to be present at one time—but in colonies that number more than 10,000 pairs, this amounts to less than I percent of the total number of pairs (Shugart 1980:426—27).

Same-sex courtship, sexual, pair-bonding, and /or parenting behaviors have been documented in the scientific literature in at least 167 species of mammals, 132 birds, 32 reptiles and amphibians 15 fishes, and 125 insects and other invertebrates, for a total of 471 species (see part 2 and appendix for a complete list). These figures do not include domesticated animals (at least another 19 species; see the appendix), nor species in which only sexually immature animals/juveniles engage in homosexual activities (for a survey of the latter in mammals, see Dagg 1984). For a number of reasons, this tally is likely to be an underestimate (especially for species other than mammals and birds, which are not as thoroughly covered): see chapter 3 for further discussion. It should also be pointed out that species totals may differ depending on the classificatory schema used; in some taxonomies, for example, animals that in this book are lumped together as subspecies are considered separate species (e.g., the various subspecies of Savanna Baboons, Flamingos, or Wapiti/Red Deer). This roster also excludes a wide variety of other cases in which the evidence for homosexual activities is not definitive, such as:

1. species in which homosexual activity is suspected (and sometimes included in comprehensive surveys of homosexual behavior, such as Dagg 1984) but in which the sex of participants has not yet been coin-firmed (e.g., one-horned rhinoceros [Laurie 1982:323], yellow-bellied marmot [Armitage 1962:327], South African cliff swallow [Earlé 1985:46], band-tailed barbfhroat hummingbird [Harms and Ahumada 1992], calliope hummingbird [Armstrong 1988], ringed Parakeet [Hardy 1964]).

2. bird species in which supernormal clutches have been documented without any direct evidence of same-sex pairs (e.g., numerous gulls and other bird species; see note 70, chapter 4).

3. same-sex trios or joint parenting arrangements with little or no conclusive evidence of courtship, sex, or pair-bonding between the like-sexed coparenis (e.g., bobolink [Bollinger et al. 1986], various ducks. grouse [cf. note 11, this chapter]).

4. bird species in which males associate in “pairs” or form “partnerships” with other males for joint displays during heterosexual courtships, but in which no overt courtship or sexual behavior occers between such partners or other same-sex individuals (e.g., several manakins of the genera Chiroxiphia, Pipra, Machaeropterus, and Masius —note however that males in these species often court “female-plumaged. birds, the sex of most of which has not been determined, while in two other species, some of these individuals have been determined to be males; wild turkey; king bird of paradise and possibly other birds of paradise. For further references, see McDonald 1989: (007 and Trainer and McDonald 1993:779).

5. species in which the only form of documented “same-sex” activity involves individuals mounting het-crosexual copulating pairs, such that the mounting activity is not necessarily limited to like-sexed individuals or the same-sex motivation/orientation is not clear (e.g., camel and Dagg 1981:92], Buller’s albatross [Warham 1967:129]).

6. species in which the only same-sex activity