The Magnificent Overabundance of Reality

It is early morning in the mountains of Sierra Chincua in central Mexico. Covered with what appear to be the golden and orange leaves of autumn, the forest is aquiver, “her trillion secrets touchably alive”¹⁴⁰—but these are not leaves, nor is it autumn. The sound of a distant waterfall fills the air—but no cascading rapids are nearby. It is the fluttering of hundreds of thousands of paper-thin wings—for this is the overwintering site of Monarch Butterflies, resting after their epic migration across North America. They cling to the trees in such numbers that the branches are bent toward the ground, and the forest floor is carpeted with their densely packed bodies. Some of the butterflies are in tandem, since mating often takes place at these overwintering sites. And some of this mating is homosexual: one study of an overwintering site revealed that at the peak of mating activity, more than 10 percent of the Monarch pairs were composed of two males, while later in the season, this percentage rose to nearly 50 percent.¹⁴¹ When the Monarchs take to the air en masse, they form a thick orange cloud that engulfs the trees and requires thirty minutes to pass. Seen from above, their multitude is staggering: the forest seems to be on fire, burning with millions of tiny butterfly-flames. This image is a powerful evocation of the central theme of Biological Exuberance: the glorious multiplicity and bounty of life, what author Hakim Bey has called “the magnificent overabundance of reality.”¹⁴²

We conclude this section with a reflection on where this journey through the speculations of post-Darwinian evolution, chaos theory, and biodiversity studies has led us—a journey along circuitous routes, following clues that at times seemed far-flung, straying down paths that never quite lost us (in spite of their tangential meanderings). Our final resting spot—the concept of Biological Exuberance—lies somewhere along the trajectory defined by these three points (chaos, biodiversity, evolution), although its exact location remains strangely imprecise.¹⁴³ Seen in the light of Biological Exuberance, animal homosexuality/transgender and other nonreproductive behaviors finally “make sense”—they find an intuitive connection to a larger pattern. Yet they are still, paradoxically, “inexplicable,” since they continue to elude conventional definitions of usefulness. Nothing, in the end, has really been “explained”—and rightly so, for it was “sensible explanations” that ran aground in the first place.

Nevertheless, by looking at one particular aspect of animal behavior, we have actually stumbled upon something much larger—a new way of seeing the world, of perceiving broader patterns in nature and human society. Animal homosexuality and transgender may appear far removed from our everyday lives, but through these phenomena, we also arrive at an understanding and appreciation of some of the simplest, most ordinary things around us. Biological Exuberance is available, if it is nothing else—at our fingertips, everywhere we turn, in the fibers and textures that surround us, in the spices that fill our nostrils as we walk past the corner store, in the cloud formations above us and the dandelion seeds strewn by the wind about us, in the embrace of a friend and the kiss of a beloved—in all the colors and patterns and sensations that fill our lives. How many of us haven’t, at one time or another, been overcome by this variety, this feeling of what poet Louis MacNeice describes as “the drunkenness of things being various,” the world as “incorrigibly plural”?¹⁴⁴ Biological Exuberance simply takes our intuitive understanding of the diversity of life and makes it the essence of existence. We needn’t be living in material wealth or in an isolated wilderness to experience this lavishness, either. The weeds struggling through a sidewalk crack or choking an abandoned urban plot are every bit as sumptuous as the most refined of rose gardens, the most magnificent of mountain forests—if not more so. Gifted with this heightened understanding, we can now find the intoxication contained in a glass of water, where before even the most sophisticated wine seemed flavorless (to paraphrase Hakim Bey).¹⁴⁵

Ultimately, the synthesis of scientific views represented by Biological Exuberance brings us full circle—back to a way of looking at the world that is in accordance with some of the most ancient indigenous conceptions of animal (and human) sexual and gender variability. This perspective dissolves binary oppositions, uniting dualities while simultaneously cherishing unlikeness. It suffers difference, honoring the “anomalous” and the “irregular” without reducing them to something familiar or “manageable.” And it embraces paradox, recognizing the coexistence of contradictory and seemingly incompatible phenomena. It is about the unspeakable inexplicability of earth’s mysteries—which are as immediate as the next heartbeat. Biological Exuberance is, above all, an affirmation of life’s vitality and infinite possibilities: a worldview that is at once primordial and futuristic, in which gender is kaleidoscopic, sexualities are multiple, and the categories of male and female are fluid and transmutable. A world, in short, exactly like the one we inhabit.

Part II

A Wondrous Bestiary Portraits of Homosexual, Bisexual, and Transgendered Wildlife

PIED BEAUTY Introduction

“ A Wondrous Bestiary” presents a species-by-species survey of sexual and gender variance in animals. Included are profiles of mammals and birds in which at least some individuals are homosexual, bisexual, and/or transgendered. Only species in which same-sex activities have been scientifically documented are included here; for species excluded from this roster, see p. 673: chapter 1, note 29; for more on the (sometimes controversial) interpretations and categorizations of these behaviors, see chapters 3–5. Because each portrait is self-contained, it can be read either on its own, in sequence as part of a subgrouping of related animals, in conjunction with material in part 1, or browsed at random, according to the particular interests of the reader (the index may be used to investigate particular topics). Each portrait contains the following types of information, arranged sequentially:

Heading: basic identifying information for each profile, including:

• Name: common and scientific names of the species, the animal subgrouping, and an icon identifying the major animal type (e.g., primate, marine mammal, etc.).

• Category: indicates whether the animal in question exhibits male and/or female homosexuality; the major type of transgender if present (transvestism and/or intersexuality); the types of same-sex behaviors involved; and whether homosexuality/transgender has been observed in the wild, semiwild, and/or captivity (for discussion of these distinctions, see chapters 1 and 4).

• Ranking: an informal categorization of each animal in terms of the importance of homosexuality and/or transgender in the species, based on the variety and elaboration of behaviors, the frequency of same-sex activity, and the sexual orientation profiles for the species; categories are “primary,” “moderate,” and “incidental.”

• Portrait Drawing: a line drawing identifying one or more of the profiled species.

Ecology: background information about the animal and its environment:

• Identification: a brief physical description of the animal.

• Distribution: the animal’s geographic range, and an indication of the species’ endangered status if threatened in the wild (World Conservation Union-designated categories of “critically endangered,” “endangered,” or “vulnerable”; see pp. 708-9: chapter 5, note 17, for some discussion of these designations).

• Habitat: a description of the animal’s physical environment.

• Study Area(s): specific location(s) and subspecies where homosexuality has been observed and/or studied.

Social Organization: background information about the general social and mating system(s) of the animal, providing a behavioral context for understanding homosexuality /transgender in the species.

Description: detailed information about the particular form(s) of homosexuality and/or transgender found in this animal, including:

• Behavioral Expression: the type(s) of behaviors involved, with discussion of courtship, affectionate, sexual, pair-bonding, and/or parenting activities; and the form(s) of transgender, if any (behavioral or physical transvestism, intersexuality, etc.).

• Frequency: detailed statistics (where available) or estimates of how often homosexual activity occurs, specified as the proportion of all sexual (or other) activity that is same-sex, and/or frequency rates, time/activity budgets, or other measures.

• Orientation: what proportion of the population participates in same-sex activity, where individuals fall along the continuum from homosexual through bisexual to heterosexual, and how this is manifested during individual life histories.

• Illustrations: photographs and line drawings of specific activities.

Nonreproductive and Alternative Heterosexualities: summaries of various heterosexual activities that do not lead to reproduction (or that actively suppress it), along with family and pair-bonding configurations that deviate from the species-typical pattern or that are otherwise noteworthy.

Other Species: summary of homosexual activities and/or transgender in related species, where applicable.

Sources: a complete list of references for each animal, with an indication of which ones discuss or mention homosexuality/transgender.

The appendix summarizes the occurrence of homosexuality (and in some cases, transgender) in other major animal groupings: reptiles/amphibians, fish, insects, spiders/other invertebrates, and domesticated animals. Included are tables and a complete list of references.

Mammals

Primates Apes Langurs and Leaf Monkeys Macaques Other Primates

Marine Mammals Dolphins and Whales Seals and Manatees

Hoofed Mammals Deer Giraffes, Antelopes, and Gazelles Wild Sheep, Goats, and Buffalo Other Hoofed Mammals

Other Mammals Carnivores Marsupials Rodents, Insectivores, and Bats

Primates

APES

IDENTIFICATION: Similar to the Common Chimpanzee, but more slender and with longer limbs, a uniformly dark face, and a slight “part” in the hair on top of the head. DISTRIBUTION: Central and western Congo (Zaire); endangered. HABITAT: Tropical lowland rain forest. STUDY AREAS: Wamba and the Lomako Forest, Congo (Zaire); Yerkes Regional Primate Research Center (Georgia); San Diego Zoo; Wild Animal Park (San Diego); Frankfurt and Stuttgart Zoos, Germany.

Social Organization

Bonobos live in communities composed of large mixed-sex and mixed-age groups containing up to 60 or more individuals. These often divide into smaller, temporary subgroups that have a more fluid membership. On reaching adolescence (and becoming sexually mature), female Bonobos typically leave their home group and emigrate to a new one, while males usually remain in their home group for life. Females often form strongly bonded subgroups and are generally dominant to males. The mating system is promiscuous: males and females mate with multiple partners, and males do not generally participate extensively in raising their offspring.

Description

Behavioral Expression: Bonobos have one of the most varied and extensive repertoires of homosexual practices found in any animal. Females engage in an extraordinary form of mutual genital stimulation that, in many aspects, is unique to this species. Sometimes known as GG-RUBBING (for genito-genital rubbing), this behavior is usually performed in a face-to-face embracing position (heterosexual copulation is also sometimes done in this position, but not as often as in lesbian interactions). One female stands on all fours and literally “carries” or lifts her partner off the ground; the female on the bottom wraps her legs around the other’s waist and clings to her as they rapidly rub their genitals against one another, directly stimulating each other’s clitoris. Some scientists believe that the particular shape and location of the Bonobo’s genitals have evolved specifically for lesbian rather than heterosexual interactions. During GG-rubbing, each female rhythmically swings her pelvis from side to side—precisely timed so that each partner is thrusting in opposite directions—at a rate of about two thrusts per second. This is comparable to the thrusting rate seen in males during heterosexual interactions, but males thrust vertically rather than sideways. In addition, although both homosexual and heterosexual copulations are quite brief, same-sex interactions generally last slightly longer—an average of about 15 seconds (maximum of 1 minute) compared to about 12 seconds (maximum of 45 seconds) for heterosexual matings. Sometimes females GG-rub with the same partner several times in a row.

Two female Bonobos in Congo (Zaire) “GG (genito-genital) rubbing”

As shown by their facial expressions, vocalizations, and genital engorgement, females experience intense pleasure—and probably orgasm—during homosexual interactions. Partners gaze intensely into each other’s eyes and maintain eye contact throughout the interaction. Sometimes, females grimace or “grin” by baring their teeth wide and also utter screams or squeals that are thought to be associated with sexual climax. The Bonobo’s clitoris is prominent and well-developed; during sexual arousal it undergoes a full erection of both the shaft and glans (in humans, only the glans of the clitoris becomes enlarged), swelling to nearly twice its regular size. Remarkably, clitoral penetration has occasionally been observed between females during homosexual interactions (in captivity). When penetration occurs, the females often switch to vertical thrusting (as in heterosexual mating) rather than the usual sideways hip movements.

Two male Bonobos “rump rubbing”

A male Bonobo mounting another male from behind

Genital stimulation between females is sometimes performed in different positions: the two partners may both hang from a branch facing each other; one female may mount the other from behind; one female might lie on her back while the other stands facing away from her, rubbing her genitals on her recumbent partner’s vulva; or both females may lie on their backs or stand rump-to-rump while GG-rubbing. In the face-to-face position, females may alternate between who is on bottom and who is on top; prior to interacting, they often “negotiate” positions by lying down with legs spread to see whether the other partner wants to be on top. GG-rubbing occurs among females of all ages, from adolescent to very old, but if an older and a younger female are interacting, often the younger female will be on top. Sexual activity may also be more common when the females are of different ranks. Homosexual interactions are often initiated with a characteristic series of “courtship” signals: approaching the partner and peering closely, standing on the hind legs and raising the arms over the head while making eye contact, and/or touching the shoulder or knee while staring. Among captive Bonobos, partners may also use a highly developed “lexicon” of manual gestures to help negotiate the position(s) to be used in sexual interactions (see pp. 66–69 for more detailed discussion).

Two younger male Bonobos engaging in fellatio

Females may have multiple sexual partners. In one troop containing ten females, each female interacted sexually with five other females on average, and some had as many as nine different partners. Group sexual activity also occasionally takes place, with three to five females simultaneously rubbing their genitals together. Some females are considered especially “attractive”—usually because of the shape, size, and coloration of their genital swellings—and individuals may have preferred partners that they tend to interact with more often. In fact, females typically form strongly bonded, enduring relationships with one another that are fostered by sexual interactions and include such activities as mutual grooming, play, food-sharing, and alliance-formation (often for challenging males). Females generally prefer each other’s company, and their same-sex bonds form the core of social organization. In addition, when new females (usually adolescents) join a troop, they often pair up with an older female with whom they have most of their sexual and affectionate interactions. These bonds need not be exclusive—either party may have sex with other females or males—but such mentorlike pairings can last for a year or more until the newcomer is fully integrated into the troop. In this species, a sort of homosexual “incest taboo” is in effect for these pair-bonds: most females are unrelated to the Bonobos in their new troop, but those who are related are not chosen as special partners. Some homosexual activity does, however, occur between mothers and their daughters.

An adult male Bonobo (left) manually stimulating the penis of a younger male

Male Bonobos also have a wide variety of homosexual interactions. Sometimes, two males mutually stimulate each other’s genitals using a face-to-face position similar to GG-rubbing: one male lies on his back and spreads his legs while the other thrusts on him, rubbing their erections together (in this and all other male homosexual activity, anal penetration is not involved). If there is an age difference between partners, often the younger male will be on the bottom. Occasionally, two males hang from a branch facing each other and engage in what is known as PENIS FENCING, swinging their hips from side to side as they rub their erect penises on each other or cross them as if they were fencing with swords. Another activity is RUMP RUBBING, in which two males stand on all fours in opposite directions, pressing their buttocks against each other and mutually rubbing their anal and scrotal regions. Both males often have erections. Males also mount each other from behind and either mountee or mounter may make thrusting movements. Sometimes the males switch positions, and the mounter may scream or grin in sexual arousal as in lesbian or heterosexual interactions. Bonobo males have also been seen standing on their hind legs, one embracing the other from behind. Other sexual activities include oral sex, or fellatio, in which one male sucks another’s penis at the initiation of either partner (usually seen only in younger males). Manual stimulation of the genitals by a partner also occurs: typically an adolescent male spreads his legs and presents his erect penis to an adult male, who takes the shaft in his hand and caresses it with up-and-down movements. Younger males (and occasionally females) also sometimes give each other openmouthed kisses, often with extensive mutual tongue stimulation. Although males do not appear to form pairlike bonds with sexual partners (as do some females), occasionally two or three males are intimately associated as companions, constantly accompanying each other and foraging together.

Frequency: Homosexual activity is nearly as common as heterosexual activity in Bonobos, accounting for 40–50 percent of all sexual interactions; two-thirds to three-quarters of this same-sex activity is between females (mostly GG-rubbing). Daily life among Bonobos is characterized by numerous relatively brief episodes of sexual activity scattered throughout the day, and homosexual interactions are frequent. Each female participates in GG-rubbing on average once every two hours or so, and some newcomers to a troop do so even more often, on an hourly basis.

Orientation: Virtually all Bonobos are bisexual, interacting sexually with both males and females. In fact, motherhood and homosexual activity are fully integrated among Bonobos, as a female often GG-rubs with another female while her infant is clinging to her belly. Usually same-sex and opposite-sex activities are interspersed or alternated, although both may occur simultaneously during group sexual interactions. Nevertheless, it appears that—among some females at least—homosexual activity is preferred. Although females vary along a continuum, with one-third to nearly 90 percent of their interactions being with partners of the same sex, overall there is often a predominance of homosexual activity. An average of two-thirds of all sexual interactions among females are with other females, and individuals generally have more female than male sexual partners. In addition, females have sometimes been observed consistently ignoring males who are soliciting them for sex, preferring instead to GG-rub with each other.