General Rules of Formation of the Plural

NOUN

 

THE CATEGORY OF NUMBER

General Rules of Formation of the Plural

a) -s [s] - after voiceless consonants. (e.g. cats)

   [z] - after voiced consonants and vowels (e.g. dogs, bees)

b) -es [iz] - after sibilants: -s, -z, -x, -sh, -ch. (e.g. boxes)

 

Peculiarities

1. After the final letter - o:

  -s a) in proper names (e.g. Romeo - Romeos, Carlo - Carlos)

b) if -o is preceded by a vowel (e.g. kangaroos, radios, zoos)

c) in compounds with no noun stem (e.g. lean-tos, hair-dos)

d) in abbreviations (e.g. kilos, photos, typos)

e) in most borrowed words (e.g. pianos, tangos, solos)

 

-es in other words (e.g. tomatoes, potatoes, echoes, Negroes, heroes)

 

-s and -es in several words (e.g. archipelago(e)s, banjo(e)s, buffalo(e)s, cargo(e)s, commando(e)s, flamingo(e)s, halo(e)s, motto(e)s, tornado(e)s, volcano(e)s, mosquito(e)s, virago(e)s, portico(e)s, manifesto(e)s

 

2. After the final letter - y:

-s a) in proper names (e.g. Tony - Tonys, Kennedy - Kennedys,      

   Germany - Germanys)

b) if -y is preceded by a vowel (e.g. days, monkeys)

c) in compounds with no noun stem (e.g. stand-bys)

 

-ies in other words (e.g. duties, spies, skies)

(Note: After the suffix -quy -y is changed into -ie-, though preceded by a vowel (e.g. soliloquy - soliloquies, colloquy - colloquies)

 

3. The final cluster th [q]:

a) [ ð z] after long vowels and diphthongs (e.g. mouths, paths, booths)

b) [ q s] after consonants and short vowels (e.g. lengths, births, cloths)

c) [ ð z] and [ q s] in several words (e.g. baths, oaths, truths, wreaths, youths)

 

4. After final - f, - fe:

a) -ves (lives, wives, knives, calves, halves, elves, shelves, selves, leaves, sheaves, thieves, loaves, wolves)

b) -fs or -ves (handkerchiefs (-ves), scarfs (-ves), dwarfs (the form "dwarves" is only used in Tolkien's books), hoofs (-ves), wharfs (-ves), beefs (-ves) (depending on the meaning))

c) -fs all other words (e.g. proofs, chiefs, safes, cliffs, gulfs, reefs, griefs, beliefs, roofs, muffs, still lifes)

 

Irregular Plurals

1. -en (e.g. oxen, children, brother - brethren)

2. Root-vowel interchange (mutation)

foot - feet tooth - teeth goose [gu:s] - geese [gi:s] cow - kine (poetic)

man - men woman - women mouse - mice dormouse - dormice louse - lice

Note: Gooses (=irons, or silly people), mouses (=computer devices), louses (=worthless people)

Abbreviations

e.g. MP (Member of Parliament) - MPs ['em'pi:z]

  MD (Doctor of Medicine) - MDs ['em'di:z]

  Co. (company) - Co.s [kouz]

  Mr (Mister) - Messrs ['mesəz]

  Mrs - Mmes

Note: In the phrase like "Miss Brown" two different forms are used for the plural. We may either say "the Miss Browns" or "the Misses Brown", the latter being generally considered more correct.

 

Foreign Plurals

1. Latin

a) -us [əs] - -i [ai]

 e.g. nucleus - nuclei

  stimulus - stimuli

   radius - radii

b) -us [əs] - -ora [ərə], -era [ərə]

e.g. genus - genera

   corpus - corpora

c) -a [ə] - -ae [-i:]

e.g. antenna - antennae

   formula - formulae

   amoeba - amoebae

d) -um [əm] - -a [ə]

e.g. datum - data

     stratum - strata

e) -ex, -ix [-iks] - -ices [-isi:z]

e.g. index – indices

     appendix – appendices

Note: Most words of the Latin origin may have two plural forms: Latin and English, as in formula – formulae, formulas.

 

2. Greek

a) -is [is] - -es [i:z]

e.g. basis ['beisis] – bases ['beisi:z]   

     ellipsis – ellipses

     crisis – crises

     axis – axes

b) -on [ən] - -a [ə]

e.g. criterion – criteria

      phenomenon – phenomena

c) -a [ə] - -ata [ətə]

e.g. dogma – dogmata

      stigma – stigmata

 

3. French

a) -eau, -eu [ou] - -eaux [ouz]

                           -eaus [ouz]

e.g. tableau – tableaux, tableaus

     bureau – bureaux, bureaus

     adieu—adieux, adieus

b) -s [-] - -s [z]

e.g. corps [ko:] – corps [ko:z]

       pas [pa:] – pas [pa:z]

       chamois ['∫æmwa:] -- chamois ['∫æmwa:z]

       chassis ['∫a:si] – chassis ['va:siz]

       précis ['preisi:]/[prei'si:] – précis ['preisi:z]/[prei'si:z]

c) monsieur [mə'sjə:] – messieurs [mə'sjə:z]          

madam ['mædəm] – mesdames [mei'da:m]

 mademoiselle [mædəm(w) ə'zel] – mademoiselle [meidmwa:'zel]

 

4. Italian

a) -o [ou] - -i [i:]

e.g. tempo – tempi

   virtuoso – virtuosi

b) -a [ə] - -e [ei] ([i])

 e.g. ['liərə] – lire ['liərei]

 

5. Hebrew

seraph – seraphs, seraphim (שׂרף – שׂרפים)

cherub – cherubs, cherubim (בורכ – םיבורכ)

kibbutz – kibbutzim (צוביק – םיצוביק)

 

6. Arabic

fellah (Egyptian peasant) – fellahs, fellaheen, fellahin

                               (فلاح‎–   فلاحون)

jinnee – jinn  (جني –  جن)

 

7. Portuguese

auto-da-fé ['o:təu da:'fei] -- autos-da-fé ['o:təuz da:'fei] 

 

8. Japanese

samurai – samurai(s) 侍 haiku – haiku 俳句

but: kimono – kimonos 着物

ninja – ninja(s) 忍者

 

Unchanged Plurals

The following nouns have the same form in the Singular and in the Plural:

a) sheep, deer, swine, grouse "шотландская куропатка"

b) various kinds of fish: fish, pike, trout, cod, perch, salmon [s æ :m ə n], etc. (e.g. a few trout, seven salmon)

c) species ['spi:∫iz] "разновидность", series ['si ə ri:z], craft "судно", means "средство", crossroads.

d) names of nationalities or local groups ending in -ese, -ss, -x: Japanese, Vietnamese, Myanmarese, Swiss, Manx "житель острова Мэн", etc. (e.g. thirteen Congolese)

e) the words sort, kind, manner in the expression: these sort(s) of things

f) such nouns of quantity as pair, couple, dozen, score, head (of cattle) if preceded by numerals (e.g. three dozen students)

 

Note: Sportsmen (big-game hunters, anglers, and others) tend to use the singular for the plural - lion for lions, antelope for antelopes, etc., etc. – and to look with scorn upon those who speak of lions and antelopes. The ordinary people, unacquainted with the jargon of these very superior specialists, should not allow themselves to be intimidated by the snobs of sport. If you wish to shoot three lions or to hunt tigers, do so.

 

ADJECTIVE AND ADVERB

 

SUBSTANTIVIZED ADJECTIVE

SUBSTANTIVIZED ADJECTIVES are adjectives used as nouns.

 

WHOLLY SUBTATIVIZED ADJECTIVES

PARTIALLY SUBSTANTIVIZED ADJECTIVES

They acquire all characteristics of the Noun: number, possessive case, may be used with the definite or indefinite article or with no article. 1) denoting social rank or position, party, creed, nationality, race, etc. e.g. a noble, a superior, a domestic, a Christian, a Russian, a black, a white, an ancient, a primitive, a savage, a native, a local, a drunk. (Note: Words ending in –ss, -se have one form for both numbers: a Chinese, two Chinese, the Chinese; a Swiss, two Swiss, the Swiss.) 2) some past participles: accused, deceased, unemployed. (They are used in the singular and the plural, but have one form for both numbers: e.g. The accused were smoking. An accused was smoking. 3) Some adjectives fully converted into nouns are used only in the plural: goods, greens, evergreens, sweets, valuables, movables, finals, eatables, chemicals, etc. 4) names of colours. If used in a general sense, they are treated as uncountables; when denoting shades of colour, they are treated as countables. e.g. Red is my favourite colour. The sky was a pale blue. The green of the trees was exquisite. The trees in the garden turned yellows and browns.

They have only one form, no number, no possessive case. 1) denoting all the persons possessing the quality mentioned by the adjective as a group, but not separate individuals, used with the definite article and admitting only of plural concord: the old, the young, the rich, the poor, the dumb and deaf, the mute, (Note: If separate persons are meant the word man is used: a poor man, a young man. e.g. The Dutch are friendly people. All the wounded were sleeping. (Note: Adjectives ending in –sh and –ch which denote nations are used with the definite article to imply the whole nation. If separate members of the nation are meant, the nouns man (men),woman (women) or people are added: e.g. Three Frenchmen When two partially substantivized adjectives are connected by the conjunction and, they may be used with no article. 2) denoting abstract notions and used with the definite article in the singular: the unseen, the unreal, the invisible, the useful. e.g. The unknown is always interesting. 3) some partially substantivized adjectives used in set expressions: in the affirmative, in the negative, in the open, on (the) average, on the whole, on aggregate, in general, in short, in the dead of the night, to touch smb. to the quick, out of the usual, for good, all of a sudden, on the contrary, at large, in the main, on the whole, in particular, in short, etc 4) comparatives and superlatives: to get the better of smth, a change for the better, for the best, to be at one’s best, not in the least, at least, etc.

 

Nouns

Substantivized Adjectives

Wholly - an, - ian, - i, etc. Wholly -ese, -ss, - x,   etc Partially -sh, -ch. Examples Swede Dane Pole Spaniard Arab Turk German Russian American Kuwaiti Iraqi Pakistani Czech Japanese Chinese Myanmarese Surinamese Congolese Swiss Manx English Welsh Irish French Dutch One a Spaniard a Swede a German an Iraqi a Japanese a Swiss a Manx an Englishman a Welshman an Irishman a Frenchman a Dutchman Several (two, three, etc) (not the whole nation) 2 Spaniards 2 Swedes     2 Germans 2 Iraqis 2 Japanese 2 Swiss 2 Manx (no suffix –s in the plural) 2 Englishmen 2 Welshmen 2 Irishmen 2 Frenchmen 2 Dutchmen Used collectively (the whole nation) The Spaniards The Swedes     The Germans The Iraqis The Japanese The Swiss The Manx (no suffix –s in the plural) The English The Welsh The Irish The French The Dutch

 

ADJECTIVE OR ADVERB

 

Confusion of adjectives and adverbs is often caused by the interfering influence of the Russian language. It should be borne in mind that some English verbs can be used both as notional verbs (simple verbal predicates) and as link verbs. When used as link verbs, they are normally followed by adjectives, not adverbs.

 

	LINK VERBS OF BEING	NOTIONAL VERBS
FEEL	She felt vague and gloomy, she did not know why. (I. Murdoch) He feels good. (=He is in a cheerful mood) He feels well. (=He is not ill) (The word “ well” is an adjective in this sentence.)	How can you feel so differently about someone who means so much to me? (K. Mansfield)
LOOK	‘You look marvelous,’ said Tallis, ‘you look like flowers, fields, country things.’ (I. Murdoch)	When she had read it she looked at him happily. (A. Cronin)
SOUND	This would have sounded odd in English some time ago. (Br. Foster) I mean I wouldn't have been able to do a lot of the things on the current album if I hadn't had samples they just wouldn't have sounded convincing.	The bell sounded for dinner at eight o’clock. ‘Tap, tap, tap,’ sounded suddenly on the outside door through the preternatural silence.
TASTE	Johnny was in that phase of lotus-eating when all the world tastes bitter in one’s mouth. (O. Henry)	This soup needs to be tasted carefully as the final result depends on the quality of the homemade purée, stock etc.
SMELL	How strong the jonquils smelled in the warm room. (K. Mansfield)	Roger walked past a cat and the cat smelled Roger thoroughly.
APPEAR	Solon and his times can appear interesting to students of history simply as a test of the limits and nature of historical argument.	You never know what will happen, and the winds of change appear swiftly and often destructively.
STAND	I ask them to stand calm, firm and united in this time of trial.	I have tried several techniques to help the horse to relax and stand calmly.
PROVE	Perhaps the book will prove useful.	The fingerprints on the gun prove conclusively that he was the murderer.
LOOM	Possessions loom important as you awaken. (=seem important) Fear of failure loomed large in his mind. (=seemed great)	It is a white square in which loom faintly a pinkish triangle denoting the facade of a house, a grayish ribbon for a wall, skeletons of poplars and, in the background, the ghost of a mountain.
BULK	Safety considerations bulked large during development of the new spacecraft. (=appeared important)	Certain paper bulks well. (=forms a mass)
RING	Her characters and situations all ring false and her movie just seems painful and pointless.	As the bells rang loudly from the steeple and the grand church filled up with people I thought back to the years of war.
HOLD	The rule holds good. (=is true)	The race is scheduled to begin on the second Saturday of June of each year, unless extremely inclement weather prevents it from being held safely.
LIE	Never allow any of your money to lie idle.	The seasonal lagoon and Brigalow scrub attracts many birds and the resident kangaroos lie idly in the shade as you enjoy maybe one of the cheapest games of golf in the country.

 

NOTE: The word "badly" is often used incorrectly. For example, "I feel badly for him because he didn't make the cut". Most grammarians believe that this statement is incorrect. In this case bad is an adjective that we use with the link verbs: feel, be, seem, look or appear.

To feel badly implies that your sense of touch is not right. When you are referring to a sense of touch, then badly is used as an adverb describing the verb to feel or touch. The correct way to say the sentence is, "I feel bad for him because he didn't make the cut".

Examples:

I feel bad that I wasn't able to make the concert.

The teacher felt bad that her student wasn't able to pass the exam.

She burned her hands taking the pie out of the oven, and thus felt     badly and couldn't distinguish between soft and rough.

He damaged the nerve endings in an accident, and now feels badly. (He probably also feels emotionally bad.)

 

	LINK VERBS OF BECOMING	NOTIONAL VERBS
GET	Penguins can sometimes get aggressive. The food is getting cold.	It helps to practice empathy when trying to get others to tell the truth.
GROW	They say that when a flock of passenger pigeons flew across the countryside, the sky grew dark.	Japan's GDP grew swiftly in the first quarter of last year.
TURN	The milk will turn sour if you don’t put it in the fridge.	Do not turn abruptly: turn slowly and gradually, especially when changing lanes.
COME	The sign on my room door came loose. The fact that Dan’s expectation came true can hardly be a source of surprise.	Those changes came abruptly and we know very little about abrupt climate change in the tropics.
GO	My camera got some water inside and went crazy. The meat goes bad.	The meeting was going badly.
RUN	In summer the creek ran dry.	Men, women, and children run madly about the streets, waving their arms and shouting
FALL	The child fell sick. The job fell vacant.	A bicycle, which had been standing behind the door, fell noisily to the floor.

 

 

	LINK VERBS OF REMAINING	NOTIONAL VERBS
KEEP	"Well, then, keep quiet," rejoined Sikes with a growl like that he was accustomed to use when addressing his dog, "or I'll quiet you for a good long time to come." (Ch. Dickens)	Toledo, Paris, Rome, Moscow or Dublin, keep lovingly its 200 covered bridges, and offer its visitors a choice between about a hundred country fairs.
REMAIN	Things will remain quiet for a while. It's just the way it goes.	"Day dawned on the second of July bright and clear, and we did not know what to do or expect; whether to remain quietly in our homes, or go out in the town as usual and mingle with our people..
STAY	Stay calm. You are not alone.	Your dog must stay calmly with a stranger while you leave for several minutes.

VERB

 

 

TENSE AND ASPECT

Stative verbs are normally found only in the non-progressive forms.

Stative verbs include

1. BE and HAVE, as in

Go away! We are busy. We have a lot of work to do.

But BE meaning ‘act (in a certain way)’, and HAVE meaning something other than ‘possess’, can be used in the progressive:

Wait for me. You are being impatient. (=acting impatiently) I am still having my breakfast.

2. Verbs which contain the idea of being or having, eg:

APPLY TO (‘be true of” or ‘have reference to’) eg. The rule applies to everyone.

BELONG TO (‘be the property of’) eg. This camera belongs to me.

COMPARE (‘be like’ or ‘be as good as’) eg. My computer doesn’t compare with yours.

CONCERN (‘be of importance to’) eg. This matter concerns you.

CONTAIN (‘have’ or ‘hold’)

COST (‘be equal in value to’) eg. How much does this cheese cost?

DEPEND ON (‘be dependent on’) eg. It depends on you.

DESERVE (‘be worthy of’) eg. You certainly deserve to win.

DIFFER FROM (‘be different from’) eg. My answer differs from yours.

EXIST (‘be’) eg. Mammoths do not exist in the modern world.

HOLD (‘have’) eg. How many people does this hall hold?

MATTER (‘be of importance’) eg. It doesn’t matter to me.

MEASURE (‘be of a certain length etc.’) eg. This room measures five meters by four.

OWN (‘have’) eg. Many peole in this country own the houses they live in.

POSSESS (‘have’) eg. I owe such qualities as I possess to my parents.

RESEMBLE (‘be like’) eg. George resembles his father in the way he walks.

STAND FOR (‘be a substiture for’) eg. The sign + stands for “plus”.

WEIGH (‘be of a certain weight’) eg. I weigh 65 kilos.

 

NOTE: Some of these verbs can also refer to activity, in which case they can freely be used in the progressive. Eg.

I am applying (=making application) to you for assistance.

I am applying this ointment to the wound to ease the pain.

In this book the author is comparing these two countries.

We are depending (=are relying) on you to help us.

Hold your arm out. – I’ m just measuring your sleeve.

In the disaster area people are existing (=keeping themselves alive) on what scraps of food they can find.

 

3. Verbs referring to an involuntary reaction of the senses:

FEEL, HEAR, SEE, SMELL, TASTE

 

FEEL and TASTE refer to involuntary reactions which correspond to the deliberate act of listening and looking. FEEL, SMELL and TASTE can refer to both the involuntary reaction and the voluntary, deliberate act. Thus:

VOLUNTARY I am listening to you. I am looking at you. I am feeling this material. I am smelling this flower. I am tasting this soup.

INVOLUNTARY I hear you. I see you. I feel a pin I’m sitting on. I smell gas. It smells awful. I taste pepper in it. It tastes hot.

The verb CAN often occurs before the five verbs in the right-hand column, eg. I can hear, see, feel, smell, taste something.

FEEL can occur freely in the simple tense or in the progressive when it refers to one’s own physical condition, as in

I feel (am feeling) hungry.

 

4. Verbs referring to mental or emotional states:

ASSUME, ASTONISH, BELIEVE, CARE, CONSIDER, DETEST, DISLIKE, DOUBT, ENVY, EXPECT, FEAR, FEEL (=think), FIND (=consider), FORGET, GUESS, HATE, HOPE, IMAGINE, IMPRESS, KNOW, LIKE, LOVE, MEAN, MIND, NOTICE, PLEASE, PREFER, REALIZE, RECOGNIZE, REGRET, REMEMBER, SATISFY, SUGGEST, SUPPOSE, SURPRISE, THINK, UNDERSTAND, WANT, WISH.

 

Notice the difference between the following pairs:

We consider (=believe) him to be very loyal.

We are considering (=studying) your application.

I expect (=suppose) you are rather tired.

I am expecting (=waiting for) a visitor.

I feel (=think) you’re right.

I am feeling very hungry.

Does anyone mind (=object) if I open the window?

Is anyone minding (=looking after) the baby while you’re out?

I think (=believe) he’s crazy.

Be quiet. I am thinking (=giving thought to the problem).

 

Note that stative verbs do not normally occur in the progressive. But it is possible for any of them to be used in the progressive provided the speaker is emphasizing the idea of an uncompleted involuntary act, or incomplete physical or mental state, as in

Something is wrong with my eyes. I am seeing double.

I am forgetting (=beginning to forget) my English.

Now we are understanding (=beginning to understand) this a little better.

 

VOICE

 

Ergative Verbs

 

An ergative verb is a verb that can be either transitive or intransitive, and whose subject when intransitive corresponds to its direct object when transitive.

In English, most verbs can be used intransitively, but ordinarily this does not change the role of the subject; consider, for example, "He ate the soup" (transitive) and "He ate" (intransitive), where the only difference is that the latter does not specify what was eaten. By contrast, with an ergative verb the role of the subject changes; consider "it broke the window" (transitive) and "the window broke" (intransitive).

Ergative verbs can be divided into several categories:

Verbs suggesting a change of state — break, burst, form, heal, melt, tear, transform.

Verbs of cooking — bake, boil, cook, fry.

Verbs of movement — move, shake, sweep, turn, walk.

Verbs involving vehicles — drive, fly, reverse, run, sail.

Some of these can be used intransitively in either sense: "I'm cooking the pasta" is fairly synonymous with both "The pasta is cooking" (as an ergative verb) and "I'm cooking", although it obviously gives more information than either.

The significance of the ergative verb is that it enables a writer or speaker not only to suppress the identity of the outside agent responsible for the particular process, but also to represent the affected party as in some way causing the action by which it is affected. It can be used by journalists sympathetic to a particular causative agent and wishing to avoid assigning blame, as in "Eight factories have closed this year."

 

accelerate

acclimatize

acculturate

acidify

activate

align

asphyxiate

attach

awaken

back

back up

bake

beam up

bend

blacken

bleed

blow up

boast

boil

bounce

break

break down

brighten

broaden

bruise

burn

burst

bust

calm down

change

char

cheer up

choke

clink

clog

close

collapse

combine

compile

connect

contort

cook

corrode

count

crack

crash

crumble

crumple

crystallize

dampen

darken

deactivate

deaden

decelerate

decrease

deepen

deflate

deform

dent

deploy

derail

detonate

dilate

dim

distill

distort

dock

download

drag

drain

drill

drive

drop

drown

dry

duplicate

eat

eject

empty

end

entwine

erode

escalate

expand

factor

fail

fall

fast backward

fast forward

fasten

fatten

fill

fill up

fire

flash

flatten

flip

float

flood

flunk

flush

fly

fold

fracture

freeze

freshen

fry

gather

graduate

grieve

grow

halt

halve

hang

harden

harmonize

hasten

heal

honk

hurt

hush

ignite

improve

increase

inflame

inflate

ionize

jam

land

launch

lean

lengthen

lessen

lighten

line up

liquify

lock

loosen

lower

madden

march

melt

mend

merge

mix

moisten

move

open

orientate

overcook

oversteer

overtire

overtrain

overwork

park

pass

play

please

plunge

pop

pull over

quicken

quiet

quieten

radiate

rattle

reboot

recycle

redden

regrow

rejuvenate

reload

relocate

rest

resuscitate

reverse

revert

revive

rewind

ripen

roast

rock

roll

rotate

rouse

run

rupture

rush

sadden

sail

scatter

scramble

scroll

separate

shake

shatter

shift

 

OBLIQUE MOODS

 

Subjunctive I

 

be, come, go, have, etc

 

Subjunctive I represents an action as problematic but not as contradicting reality.

 

The Use of Subjunctive I

 

Simple Sentence	1. in expressions of wish and hope:		Be it so! Come what may! Success attend you! Long live the chief!
	2. in oaths and imprecations:		Manners be hanged! Confound the flies!
Complex Sentence	1. in Subject Clauses introduced by the anticipatory “it”:		It is necessary that all be ready at 7 o’clock.
	2. in Object clauses	a) after expressions of order and suggestion:	We demand that you be present. We suggest that he be chosen as our delegate.
		b) after expressions of fear:	She feared lest she be mistaken.
	3. in Adverbial Clauses	a) of purpose:	We shall start early lest we be late.
		b) of concession:	Whatever the reason be, the fact remains.
		c) of condition:	If John come in time, we shall start.

 

Subjunctive II

 

	Non-continuous forms	Continuous forms (express action in process)
Non-perfect forms (express simultaneous-ness with the action of the verb in the principle clause)	were,  came,  had	were coming, were having
Perfect forms (express priority to the action in the principle clause)	had been, had come, had had	had been coming,  had been having

 

 Subjunctive II represents an action as contrary to reality.

 

The Use of Subjunctive II

 

Simple Sentence	in expressions of wish:			If only he were here now! If only he had been here the day before yesterday!
Complex Sentence	1. in Subject Clauses after the expression “It is (high) time”:			It is high time we went home.
	2. in Predicative Clauses:			It looks as if it were going to rain.
	3. in Object clauses	a) after expressions of wish:		I wish she were here now. I wish she had been here yesterday.
		NOTE: The modal verb would + infinitive is used after the verb “ wish ” when (1) the fulfilment of the action depends on the will of the person represented by the subject of the object clause, (2) the sentence refers to the present or the future, (3) and if the subject of the principal clause is not the same as the subject of the object clause. It usually expresses request or annoyance. I wish you would mind your own business.
		b) after the expression “ would rather ” (with different subjects)		I’d rather you went now. She’d much rather you had stayed.
	4. in Adverbial Clauses		a) of comparison or manner:	You speak Swahili as if you had lived all your life in Zanzibar.
			b) of concession:	Even if it were raining, I should go.
			c) of condition:	If I were the prime minister, I would be sleeping the whole day. If I had been at the lesson, I would know the material. Had I known it before, I would have come to you.
			NOTE: The modal verb would + infinitive is used in sentences expressing polite request. If you wouldn’t litter in the room, I should be very grateful.

 

The Conditional Mood

 

	Non-continuous forms	Continuous forms (express action in process)
Non-perfect forms (express simultaneous-ness with the action of the verb in the principal clause)	would (should) do, would (should) be	would (should) be doing
Perfect forms (express priority to the action in the principal clause)	would (should) have done would (should) have been	would (should) have been doing

The Conditional Mood represents an action as unreal.

The Use of The Conditional Mood

 

Simple Sentence	1. with implied condition:		I should (would) go to Bangladesh (if I had a chance).
	2. with the expression “but for”:		But for your help they would have failed in their task.
Compound Sentence	after the conjunctions “otherwise” and “or”:		I was very attentive, otherwise I (shouldn’t) wouldn’t have found the mistake. You are good at maths, or you wouldn’t have solved the task.
Complex Sentence	3. in Principal Clauses	a) with adverbial clauses of concession:	Even if it were raining, I should (would) go.
		b) with adverbial clauses of condition:	If I were the prime minister, I should (would) be sleeping the whole day. If I had been at the lesson, I should (would) know the material.

 

Татьяна Якушкина

 27.06.2007

 сочинение ученика 3-го класса 74 школы

The Suppositional Mood

 

	Non-continuous forms	Continuous forms (express action in process)
Non-perfect forms (express simultaneous-ness with the action of the verb in the principal clause)	should do, should be	should be doing
Perfect forms (express priority to the action in the principal clause)	should have done, should have been	should have been doing

 

 The Suppositional Mood represents an action as problematic but not necessarily contradicting reality.

 

The Use of The Suppositional Mood

 

Complex Sentence	1. in Subject Clauses introduced by the anticipatory pronoun “it”	a) only non-perfect forms are used after: necessary, essential, important, arranged, ordered, etc.	It is important that you should come in time.
		b) both non-perfect and perfect forms are used after: possible, probable, likely, odd, doubtful, strange, natural, surprising, curious, annoying, understandable, unbelievable, etc.	It is strange that she should say so. It is strange that she should have said so.
		NOTE: Expressions of probability and possibility are followed by the suppositional mood in negative and interrogativesentences. In affirmative sentences the construction may (might) + infinitive is used: It was possible that they might be present.
	2. in Object Clauses	a) after expressions of order and suggestion: to order, demand, require, request, advise, recommend, decide, insist, arrange, propose, suggest, etc.	I suggest that we should start tomorrow.
		b) after expression of fear and anxiety: to fear, be afraid, worry, etc. (usually after the conjunction lest)	I feared lest we should be late.
		NOTE: If the clause is introduced by the conjunction “ that ”, the construction may (might) + infinitive is often used. I am afraid that we may be late.
	3. in Predicative Clauses	when the subject is expressed by the nouns: wish, order, demand, suggestion, recommendation, motion, request, arrangement, rule, etc.	The order was that no one should leave the room.
	4. in Appositive Attributive Clauses	after the nouns wish, order, demand, suggestion, recommendation, motion, request, arrangement, rule, etc.	The captain gave the order that nobody should leave the room.
	5. in Adverbial Clauses	a) of purpose (after the conjunction lest or with negation)	We shall start at seven lest we should miss the train.
		NOTE: In affirmative sentences introduced by the conjunction “ that ” the construction may/can (might/could) + infinitive is often used. Come near that I may hear you better.
		b) of concession (after the conjunctions: though, although, whatever, whoever, whenever, however, no matter how, no matter what, etc. with reference to the future)	Though it should rain, we shall have to go.
		NOTE: With reference to any time the construction may (might) + infinitive is used. Though he may have done it quickly, I am not pleased with the work.
		c) of problematic condition (with reference to the future)	If you should go shopping, buy some bread Should it rain, I’ll stay at home.

 

Ex. 21. Comment on the use of the oblique moods in the following idiomatic phrases. Define the type of sentence/clause. Match these phrases with the difinitions given at the end. Make up a few sentences or situations with these phrases.

1. wish you were here

2. wish the ground would open and swallow smb

3. if only smb did/had done smth

4. if it wasn’t (hadn’t been) for smb/smth

5. if smb had half an eye

6. it is high/about time smb did smth

7. as if/though one’s life depended on it

8. as if/though one owned the place

9. as if/though smth were not enough

10. as if/like there was/were no tomorrow

11. to look as if one had seen a ghost

12. to look as if one (just) came/had come/stepped out of a bandbox

13. to look as if one came out of the ark

14. as if riveted (rooted) to the spot

15. where would one be/what would one do without smb/smth

16. wouldn’t know/recognize smth if one saw one

 

1. the time is (long) overdue when smth should happen or be done

2. not even know what a particular object, animal etc is

3. know nothing about an activity etc indicated by a specific object

4. in addition to smth, or doing smth, which in itself would appear to be sufficient in the circumstances

5. one’s life or work would be almost impossible, very difficult, greatly diminished in quality, etc without smb/smth

6. in such a way as to indicate that one is doing it with the utmost energy, devotion

7. be so embarrassed or ashamed, that all one wishes to do is to disappear from sight

8. very energetically, fast (with the implication of slight desperation)

9. I would enjoy your company and you would enjoy the scenery etc if you were where I am now

10. In a presumptuous, or domineering way

11. If it were possible that

12. If smb/smth did not exist, had not stepped in to help or hinder

13. If the person mentioned were not so dull, etc.

14. To look very old

15. To look very smart and neat

16. To be extremely frightened

 

Ex. 23. Memorize the following set phrases with the oblique moods expressing the speaker’s attitude to what he is saying, the manner of his involvement in the action described or performing and intensifying function.

1. as it were

2. if need be

3. far be it from me to do smth

4. as if/though it mattered

5. suffice it to say that

6. had better/best/had rather

7. if I were you/in smb’s shoes

8. would rather/would sooner

 

USAGE

EXAMPLES NOTE

GERUNDIAL

1. Noun in the Possesive Case + Gerund I remember John’s telling me that.  

The action is emphasized.

 

2. Possessive Pronoun + Gerund She denies his knowing anything.

HALF-GERUNDIAL

1. Noun in the Common Case + Gerund   There came the sound of the door closing then being locked. Fancy a woman of taste buying a hat. We object to children and women smoking.

1. This construction is common:

a) with inanimate nouns and pronouns that are not used in the Possessive Case.

b) with nouns accompanied by attributed in post position.

c) when the Gerund is preceded by more than one pronoun.

d) when the speaker wants to emphasize the doer of the action.

2. The Construction can’t combine with the verbs to avoid, to defer, to delay, to deny, to enjoy, to postpone, to put off, to risk, to suggest.

2. Personal Pronoun in the Objective case + Gerund It’s no good you hating it.

NOTE 1. In Modern English there is a tendency to use the half-gerundial Construction even with such nous as may be used in the Possessive Case.

NOTE 2. The use of the Objective case of personal pronouns is not so common.

 

Infinitive or Gerund

 

Verbs followed by the GERUND	Verbs followed by the INFINITIVE	Verbs followed by the GERUND and INFINITIVE
abhor abide acknowledge admit adore anticipate appreciate avoid be worth begrudge can't help carry on complete confess consider countenance contemplate defer delay deny detest disclaim dislike drop enjoy envisage escape evade face facilitate fancy favour feel like finish foresee give up imagine involve keep keep on leave off loathe mention mind miss ponder postpone practise put off quit recall recollect relish repent resent resist resume risk shun suggest	agree afford arrange assent be about be bound be wont beg beseech care challenge choose claim command compel condescend consent contrive decide decline deign demand desire determine direct expect endeavour fail fix hasten hesitate hope learn long manage offer opt persuade pledge prepare pretend proceed profess promise purport reckon refuse remain request resolve seek set out strive tend threaten trouble trust undertake venture wish would like yearn	attempt bother can't bear cease commence continue dread endure fear forbear intend neglect omit plan purpose scorn

 

ABSOLUTE CONSTRUCTIONS

 

ABSOLUTE CONSTRUCTIONS	4. PREPOSITIONAL ABSOLUTE CONSTRUCTION				Mr Black was eating ice cream with his hat on his head.
	3. PREPOSITIONAL ABSOLUTE PARTICIPIAL CONSTRUCTION				Mr White went for a walk with his dog following him. John was listening to the radio with his eyes closed. NOTE: An additional idea of time, cause or condition may be prompted by the context: I can’t read with everyone looking at me.
	2. NOMINATIVE ABSOLUTE CONSTRUCTION	The lesson over, the students went home.	Everything ready, I had nothing to do.	The weather good, everyone will be happy.	Mr Brown was walking along the street, his hands in his pockets.
	1. NOMINATIVE ABSOLUTE PARTICIPIAL CONSTRUCTION	The work being finished, Mr Brown went home. Examinations passed, the students were happy.	It being very late, there were no buses in the street. The work completed, I was able to take a month’s holiday.	The weather permitting, I will go to work.	The students were writing а test paper, their hands trembling. The students were writing a test paper, their books closed.
		Adverbial modifier of time	Adverbial modifier of cause	Adverbial modifier of condition	Adverbial modifier of attendant circumstances

 

VERB. MISCELLANEOUS

Have, Have got, Do Have [1]

 

These three forms all occur in modern English to denote possession but they are not completely interchangeable. The distinctions between them are as follows:

Have alone is used to denote possession at the moment of speaking in formal and semi-formal style.

  

e.g. 1. They have a large house in the country.

In formal style have got is used instead, have generally being contracted to ‘ve and has to ‘s.

 

e.g. 2. They’ve got a car.

     3. I’ve got a new tape-recorder.

     4. She’s got a lot of interesting books.

 

 

Simply have/has, without got, should be avoided in such colloquial sentences.

The negative and interrogative forms of have and have got in traditional British Englishare as follows:

 

	have (formal)	have got (informal)
Negative:	They haven’t a car. They have no car.	They haven’t got a car.
Interrogative:	Have they a car?	Have they got a car?

 

In American English, however, negative and interrogative forms with do/does occur widely in conversation and this tendency is now spreading to Britain:

Negative: They don’t have a car.

Interrogative: Do they have a car?

This usage contrasts with traditional British English, where do is used only in the following cases:

(1) when have has a habitual meaning;

E.g. 5. Does this shop have cakes? (=in general)

      Cf. 6. The shop hasn’t got any cakes today.

      7. English people don’t’ usually have summer cottages.

      Cf. 8. We haven’t got a summer cottage.

(2) when have denotes not possession but taking, receiving, experiencing;

E.g. 9. What time do you have breakfast?

    10. I didn’t’ have any letters today.

    11. We don’t’ have English today.

    12. Did you have a good holiday?

Finally, here is a table of usage showing forms used to express possession (non-habitual):

	Formal Style	Informal Style
Affirmative:	I have a dog.	I’ve got a dog.
Negative:	I haven’t a dog. I have no dog.	BrE: I havent’ got a dog. AmE: I don’t’ have a dog.
Interrogative:	Have you a dog?	BrE: Have you got a dog? AmE: Do you have a dog?

Particular care should be taken to use the forms with got in colloquial English but to avoid them in formal style.

 

ARTICLE

 

The Times

Это интересно

 1. Газообразный водород – самое неплотное вещество на Земле, а жидкий водород – самое плотное. 2. Разработанное японским химиком Сейси Ядзима (Seishi Yajima) синтетическое волокно в полтора раза прочнее лучших сортов стали. 3. Существует около 400 сортов французского сыра. 4. Во время сверхзвукового полёта авиалайнера «Конкорд» его фюзеляж нагревался до 95ºС и удлинялся в среднем на 12,5 сантиметров. 5. «Брюссельский баран» – это кролик, уши которого собраны в клубки по бокам головы, если их расправить и растянуть, то длина их достигнет трёх метров. 6. С помощью эха выискивает себе пищу лемур-руконожка. У него длинный палец, он им выстукивает и находит личинок и жуков. 7. Если из крана будет капать по одной капле в секунду, то через год из него уже вытечет почти 10 000 литров воды. 8. Среди людей, которые могут двигать ушами, только одна треть может двигать только одним ухом. 9. Крошечный комар-невидимка форсипомия совершает своими мохнатыми крылышками 62 760 взмахов в минуту. 10. Долгопят может поворачивать голову почти на 180 градусов, чтобы посмотреть, что делается у него за спиной.

 

В мире животных

Лысый уака́ри (Bald Uakari) (лат. Cacajao calvus) — вид приматов Нового Света из семейства саковых (Pitheciidae). Его особо заметным признаком является красное безволосое лицо, а ареалом распространения является северо-запад южноамериканского континента. Лысый уакари живёт в крупных группах и питается главным образом плодами.

Лысые уакари — самые крупные представители саковых и достигают величины от 54 до 57 см. Хвост как у всех уакари укорочен и насчитывает лишь от 14 до 19 см (примерно одну треть роста). Вес составляет от 2,9 до 3,5 кг. Шерсть уакари длинная и лохматая, а окраска варьирует в зависимости от подвида от бледно-серой или желтоватой до красно-коричневой. Лицо безволосое, окрашенное в ярко-красный цвет, плоское и широкое. Характерны далеко друг от друга расположенные ноздри. Лоб изредка может быть покрытым волосами. На горле могут расти более длинные, похожие на бороду волосы. Приспособленные к специализированной пище резцы тонкие и выделяются вперёд. Клыки увеличены, жевательные зубы, напротив, скорее малы. В целом уакари имеют 36 зубов.

Лысые уакари — активные в дневное время обитатели деревьев. В кронах они передвигаются большей частью на всех четырёх ногах, однако, могут преодолевать большие расстояния прыжками. При еде они часто висят только на задних ногах. В засушливые периоды иногда спускаются на землю. Эти приматы живут в группах от 30 до 50, иногда даже до 100 особей. Эти группы состоят из нескольких самцов и самок, а также общего потомства. Животные в неволе образовывают социальную иерархию. Касается ли это также при свободно живущих лысых уакари, неизвестно. Между отдельными членами группы изредка дело доходит до агрессии. В ежедневных поисках пищи большие группы часто разделяются на более маленькие подгруппы и вновь встречаются вечером. Лысые уакари общаются с помощью ряда звуков, которые позволяют подгруппам сохранять друг с другом контакт. Также важную роль в социальной жизни играет взаимный уход за шерстью Области миграции групп относительно большие, они охватывают до 600 га.

Питание лысых уакари состоит преимущественно из плодов с твёрдой скорлупой и незрелых семян. В небольших количествах они употребляют в пищу также цветки, листья и насекомых. Во время сезона дождей они держатся при поисках пищи в верхних слоях деревьев, в засушливых периодах ищут иногда на земле упавшие плоды и семена.

 

TV-People

 

Es war Sonntagabend, als die TV-PEOPLE in mein Zimmer kamen. Es war Frühling. Zumindest glaube ich, dass es Frühling war. Wie dem auch sei, es war weder eine besonders warme noch eine besonders kalte Jahreszeit.

Aber ehrlich gesagt, spielt hier die Jahreszeit keine große Rolle. Wichtig ist, dass es Sonntagabend war.

Ich mag Sonnragabende nicht. Beziehungsweise mag ich all das nicht, was damit verbunden ist, diesen sinntagabendlichen Zustand.

Wenn Sonntagabende näher rücken, bekomme ich regelmäßig Kopfschmerzen. Manchmal schlimmer, manchmal weniger schlimm. Auf jeden Fall habe ich Kopfschmerzen. Ein oder einen halb Zentimeter hinter meinen Schläfen krampfen sich weiche weiße Klumpen seltsam zusammen. Es ist ein Gefühl, als hielte jemand weit hinten die Enden unsichtbarer Fäden, die aus der Mitte dieser Klumpen, dass es besonders weh täte. Eigentlich müsste es weh tun, aber komischerweise tut es das nicht. Es ist, als man langsam lange Nadeln in betäubte Körperregionen.

Und ich höre Geräusche, eher ein vom dichten Schweigen in der Finsternis erzeugtes Knirschen, Kkruuzshaaaatar kruuzscaaaaaatar tststststsskruuzmmms, macht es. Das ist das erste Anzeichen. Zuerst kommen die Kopfschmerzen, dann folgt eine leichte Verzerrung der optischen Wahrnehmung. Wie wild durcheinander wirbelnde Fluten ziehen Ahnungen Erinnerungen nach sich, und Erinnerungen Ahnungen. Ein w