Part I. Highway construction

 

ROAD

 

Road is the traveled way on which people, animals, or wheeled vehicles move. In modern usage the term road describes a rural, lesser traveled way while the word street denotes an urban roadway. Highway refers to a major rural traveled way; more recently it has been used for a road, in either a rural or urban area, where points of entrance and exit for traffic are limited and controlled.

The Romans were the first to construct roads scientifically. Their roads were characteristically straight, and the best ones were composed of graded soil foundation that was topped by four courses (layers): a bedding of sand or mortar; rows of large flat stones; a thin layer of gravel mixed with lime; and finally a thin wearing surface of flint like lava. Roman roads varied in thickness from 3 to 5 feet (0,9 to 1,5 m), and their design remained the most sophisticated until the advent of modern road building technology in the late 18^th and early 19^th centuries.

When interest in road building revived in Europe in the late 18^th century, engineers began designing roads that incorporated lighter surfaces, relying on the subsurface for load support. Roads could thus be built relatively cheaply and quickly. The most influential of the early engineers was John Loudon McAdam, inventor of the macadam road surface. His design comprised a compacted subgrade of crushed rock to support the load, and a surface covering of light stone to absorb wear and shed water to the drainage ditches.

By the end of the 19^th century the widespread use of the bicycle created a demand for roads with smoother surfaces. A pavement of natural rock asphalt was used in Paris as early as 1854, and Portland cement concrete was used in Scotland in 1865.

Two classifications of pavement have been developed: flexible and rigid. Flexible pavement is usually made of an asphalt-gravel aggregate that is laid in one or more courses over the subgrade. The aggregate can be mixed at the road-building site or at a central plant, and its quality varies with the production method used.

A cheap method of pavement, called surface treatment, is made by spraying hot asphalt or tar on a compacted stone base and then placing small stone chips on the tar; it is suitable for lightly traveled roads and can be built up in layers. Pavements made with a high-temperature plant mix are suitable for the heaviest loads and are made by laying the asphalt while it is hot and rolling it before it cools. A flexible pavement has the advantage of being easy to build and repair, its asphalt binder is both waterproof and plastic.

Rigid pavement made of Portland cement concrete, generally has greater strength but is susceptible to cracking. The cement, mixed with water and various grades of crushed stone called aggregate, is poured onto the built-up and graded foundation as a plastic mass. It shrinks as it dries, causing tensile stresses. The concrete also contracts and expands with temperature change, so that cracking is a constant problem. The best solution has been by pouring a continuous concrete slab in which a mesh of steel bars is embedded. The bars, running lengthwise through the concrete, absorb the tension of shrinkage and hold shut any cracks that form.

Modern highway design entails careful study of soil types, the topography of the intended route, and the drainage systems around the roadway. Where necessary, measures are taken to provide additional drainage facilities to prevent water from eroding the road base or freezing in cracks. The techniques of cutting and filling (excavating in one place and depositing it nearby to form a level roadbed) and switch-backing (zigzagging up a slope) have been used for centuries to obtain easy gradients in varied terrains.

The prototype of the modern superhighway was the Bronx River Parkway, which was completed in 1925 in New York City. It was a limited-access, high-speed highway designed to carry a large volume of traffic without disturbing the natural landscape. In the 1920s the Italians began the autostrada, and the Germans followed not long after with the autobahn. Military use was an important design feature of these highways, which could accommodate heavy traffic at speeds of 100 mi (160 km) per hour. In the United States the federal government created the national Interstate Highway System after World War II. It incorporated the toll-road network with other limited-access highways and linked all of the nation’s major cities. Most industrialized countries in the world built similar systems to facilitate automobile and truck traffic.

VOCABULARY NOTES

road дорога, шоссе

way путь; направление; способ

highway шоссе; автомагистраль

to revive возрождаться; расцветать

revival (n) возрождение; расцвет

subsurface нижний горизонт (почва)

surface поверхность, (земная поверхность)

macadam road surface щебёночное покрытие дороги

to shed лить, проливать

ditch ров, канава

flexible pavement нежёсткое дорожное покрытие

rigid pavement жёсткое дорожное покрытие

subgrade земляное полотно

chips (stone) обломки (камня)

tar гудрон, смола, дёготь

to shrink давать усадку

mesh зацепление

to erode размывать

slope уклон

terrain территория, местность

EXERCISES

I.Read the text and translate it.

II.Read and translate the sentences. Pay attention to the meaning of the words “way” and “road”.

1. This way, sir.

2. It’s only a short way to the square. It’s a long way from here.

3. Which is the best way there?

4. You’re going in the opposite way.

5. Which is the way out?

6. Can’t you find your way home alone?

7. Are you going my way?

8. They might have lost their way in the dark.

9. It is an out-of-the-way place.

10. Where does this road lead?

11. I know this road, it’s a good one.

12. May I help you over the road?

13. Follow the road until you reach the hotel.

III.Answer the questions:

1. What were the first roads like and where did they appear?

2. Who was the most influential road engineer in the 18^th century? What were the characteristic features of his design?

3. What were two classifications of pavement? Explain the difference between them.

4. What does the modern highway design entail?

5. What were the prototypes of the modern superhighways?

IV. Make up a summary of the text using the questions of exercise III as a plan.

FROM THE HISTORY OF ROADS

The history of roads has been related to the centralizing of populations in powerful cities, which the roads have served for military purposes and for the collection of supplies and tribute. In Persia, between 500 and 400 B. C., all the provinces were connected with the capital, Susa, by roads, one of them 1,500 mi (2,400 km) long. The ancient Greeks, cherishing the independence of their city-states and opposing centralization, did relatively little road making. The Roman roads, however, are famous. In Italy and in every region that the Romans conquered, they built roads so durable that parts of them yet remain serviceable. The Roman roads were generally straight, even over steep grades. The surface, made of large slabs of hard stone, rested on a bed of smaller stones and cement about 3 ft. (91cm) thick. From the fall of the Roman Empire until the 19^th cent., European roads generally were neglected and hard to travel. People usually walked, rode horses, or were carried in sedan chairs. Goods were transported by pack animals. In France, Louis XIV and Napoleon built good roads for military purposes.

Elsewhere on the Continent roads were not much improved before the middle of the 19^th century. In Great Britain two Scottish engineers, Thomas Telford and John L. McAdam, were responsible for the development of the macadam road. The expansion of the Industrial Revolution brought this and other road improvements to the Continent, although the emphasis was on railroad construction until after the invention of the automobile. In the Americas the Inca Empire was remarkable for its fine roads. In what is now the United States, however, the waterways were the normal mode of travel for Native Americans, and their trails, though numerous, were simply crude footpaths. These were used by white settlers and were eventually widened to make wagon trails. The increasing use of stagecoaches led to some improvement, and the turnpike, or toll road, was introduced at the beginning of the 19^th century. Although the planning and building of road arteries, notably the National Road, marked the early years of the century, canals and then railroads took precedence. It was not until the invention of the automobile that the road became paramount again. Hard-surfaced highways were stretched across the entire land in a relatively few years. The building of the roads became a major branch of engineering, and even the most difficult obstacles were surmounted. Roads have helped greatly to equalize and unify large heterogeneous nations. In the United States the Interstate Highway System consists of 42,796 mi (68,474 km) of roads (all but 30 mi/48 km of which are completed) connecting every city. Other well-known road networks which serve to unify large areas include Germany’s Autobahn, The Trans-Canada Highway, and the Pan-American Highway.

 

VOCABULARY NOTES

pavement тротуар; мостовая; дорожное покрытие

macadam road дорога, покрытая щебёнкой

railroad железная дорога

turnpike магистраль; платная скоростная автострада

toll road платная автомобильная дорога

road network сеть дорог

tribute дань

steep grade крутой подъём

to be neglected быть заброшенным

sedan chairs носилки

mode метод, способ

stagecoach почтовая карета; дилижанс

paramount первостепенный

to surmount преодолевать

heterogeneous различный; неоднородный

 

EXERCISES

I.Read the text and translate it.

II.Explain the difference between the words: road – way – highway – turnpike.

III.Put up five questions to the text.

IV. Retell the text with the help of the questions (ex. III).

ROAD ENGINEERING

Since the beginning of the 20^th century, as the automobile and truck have offered ever higher levels of mobility, vehicle ownership per head of population has increased. Road needs have been strongly influenced by this popularity and also by the mass movement of people to cities and thence to suburban fringes – a trend that has led to increasing travel needs and road congestion and to low-density cities, which are difficult to serve by public transport. Often the building of new roads to alleviate such problems has encouraged further urban sprawl and yet more road travel. Long-term solutions require the provision of alternatives to car and truck transport, controls over land use, and the proper pricing of road travel. To this end, road managers must be concerned not merely with lines on maps but also with the number, type, speed, and loading of individual vehicles, the safety, comfort, and convenience of the traveling public, and the health and welfare of bystanders and adjoining property owners.

Ideally, the development of a major road system is an orderly, continuous process. The process follows several steps: assessing road needs and transport options; planning a system to meet those needs; designing an economically, socially and environmentally acceptable set of roads; obtaining the required approval and financing; building, operating, and maintaining the system; and providing for future extensions and reconstruction.

Planning. Road needs are closely associated with the relative location of centers of population, commerce, industry, and transportation. Traffic between two centers is approximately proportional to their populations and inversely proportional to the distance between them. Estimating traffic on a route thus requires a prediction of future population growth and economic activity, an estimation of their effects on land use and travel needs, and knowledge of any potential transport alternatives. The key variables defining road needs are the traffic volumes, tonnages, and speeds to be expected throughout the road’s life.

It is necessary to predict the extent of the road works needed to handle the traffic. A starting point in these calculations is offered by surveys of origins, destinations and route choices of present traffic; computer models are then used to estimate future traffic volumes on each proposed route. Estimates of route choice are based on the understanding that most drivers select their estimate of the quickest, shortest, or cheapest route. Consideration in planning is also given to the effect of new traffic on existing streets, roads, and parking provisions.

The next step in planning a road system is to refine the selected route to a narrow corridor. The various alignment options are drawn, considering the local terrain and conditions. The economic, social, and environmental benefits and costs of these options are discussed with relevant official and community groups until an acceptable specific route is determined.

Road design. In order fully to understand the design stage, a few standard terms must be defined. A traffic lane is the portion of pavement allocated to a single line of vehicles; it is indicated on the pavement by painted longitudinal lines or embedded markers. The shoulder is a strip of pavement outside an outer lane; it is provided for emergency use by traffic and to protect the pavement edges from traffic damage. A set of adjoining lanes and shoulders is called a roadway or carriageway, while the pavement, shoulders, and bordering roadside up to adjacent property lines is known as the right-of way.

In order to maintain quality and uniformity, design standards are established for each functional road type. The number of traffic lanes is directly determined by the combination of traffic volume and speed, since practical limits on vehicle spacing means that there is a maximum number of vehicles per hour that pass through a traffic lane. The width of lanes and shoulders, which must strike a balance between construction cost and driver comfort allows the carriageway with to be determined. Standards also specify roadside barriers or give the clear transverse distances needed on either side of the carriageway in order to provide safety in the event that vehicles accidentally leave the carriageway. Thus it is possible to define the total right-of-way width needed for the entire road although intersections will add further special demands.

 

Design standards also help to determine the actual alignment of the road by specifying, for each design speed the minimum radius of horizontal curves, the maximum vertical gradient, the clearance under bridges, and the distance a driver must be able to see the pavement ahead in order to stop or turn aside.

 

VOCABULARY NOTES

suburban пригородный

fringe край; кайма

congestion перегруженность, затор (уличного движения )

to alleviate облегчать; смягчать

bystander свидетель; наблюдатель

to adjoin примыкать, граничить

to assess облагать налогом; штрафовать

option выбор

to estimate оценивать

to handle управлять, регулировать

feasible вероятный, возможный

to refine облагораживать; усовершенствовать

terrain местность, территория

alignment выравнивание, регулировка

shoulder обочина (дороги)

EXERCISES

I. Read the following text, translate it and note the main facts.

II. Suggest the Russian equivalents:

low-density cities; long-term solutions; proper pricing; to meet needs; future extensions; approximately proportional; key variables; parking provisions; environmental benefits; three-dimensional profiles; traffic lane; total right-of-way width.

III. Give explanations in English:

travel needs

comfort and convenience of the travelling public

development of a major road system

congestion

traffic lane

shoulder

IV. Annotate the text in Russian.

BUILDING A ROAD

 

First, the earth is removed using bulldozers and diggers.

Then the ground is levelled. This is done by cutting the top layer until it is flat and level.

Next a layer of gravel (approximately 300 mm thick) is spread over the ground.

Finally the top layer is added. There are two main types: blacktop and concrete. If it is a blacktop road, layers of hot tar-macadam are poured onto the gravel and pressed down using rollers. The total layer of blacktop materials is approximately 300 mm thick. If it is a concrete road, the concrete is laid on top of the gravel. The concrete slabs are usually approximately 250 mm thick and 4,5 m long.

EXERCISES

I. Read the text and follow the information.

II. What are (a) - (n)? Use words and numbers from the passage.

Examples: (a) ground

(d) 300 mm

 

III. Answer these questions:

1. How do you make the ground flat and level?

2. How is the tar-macadam pressed down?

3. How thick is a concrete road (down to ground level)?

4. What equipment do you use to move earth away?

CAR

The story of the car is one of the most important and exciting chapters in the history of transport. World-wide, there are more than 400 million passenger cars and over 100 million light trucks such as vans and pick-ups. Million of people use their cars to help them earn a living or to travel for pleasure. People in the United States often refer to cars as automobiles. In Britain and many other countries, they are sometimes called motorcars.

Most of the world’s cars are in the United States, Canada, and Western Europe. Ways of life have changed greatly in all those countries because of the car. Farm families no longer live lonely lives. In most countries, their cars put them within reach of cities and towns. Increased mobility for all types of people has led to greater enjoyment of leisure time. The development of the car has meant that city dwellers can travel into the country for relaxing break, and people can visit relatives living in remote or distant areas.

The wide use of the car has brought about many features of life today. Many of these features are associated with the United States, the country in which widespread use of the car first developed. They include out-of-town shopping centers, motels, and several kinds of drive-ins including restaurants, banks, and cinemas. Huge roads and motorways, built mainly for cars, are found in many countries. Therefore people had cars to drive; they generally walked or rode bicycles when travelling short distances. Most long-distance travel was by railway, tram, or some kind of horse-drawn carriage. In fact, the early cars were sometimes called “horseless carriages”.

The origin of the car can be traced to Europe. But it became a major form of transportation first in the United States. Most European cars were built by hand, and were expensive. Only rich people could afford them. In early 1900s, Ransom E. Olds, Henry Ford, and other pioneers began mass-producing cars. Although some people disliked the “horseless carriage”, many welcomed the introduction of the new machine because it would replace horse-drawn carriages.

Today, the United States has about 130 million cars, more than any other country. In the U.S.A., Australia, France, and western Germany there is approximately one car to every two people. The United Kingdom has approximately one car for every three and Japan one for every four.

Car manufacture is one of the world’s major industries producing more than 30 million cars each year. Japan and the United States together produce about half of the world’s output. Other important car manufacturing countries include Germany, France, Italy, and Spain. Australia, the Czech Republic, India, South Korea, Malaysia, Sweden and the United Kingdom also have motor industries.

Many developing nations want to set up car industries. This is because it generates and supports a wide range of businesses, and stimulates economic growth. The car industry is an important customer of other industries, such as steel. Millions of people are employed in businesses connected with cars, such as showrooms, garages, and petrol stations.

The car has brought much employment, and introduced many benefits in everyday life. But it has also brought many problems. Traffic congestion, especially in major cities, has reduced the benefits from car ownership and has brought problems of noise and pollution.

Countries without a car industry have economic problems resulting from the high cost of car imports. Car accidents have now become a major cause of death or injury throughout the world.

Problems of car use have been addressed in a number of ways in recent years. Pollution has been reduced in many places by laws regulating car design. Engineers have found ways of building safer roads, and car manufacturers have improved car safety features. Laws in many countries have forced drivers to use car safety features such as seat belts.

The importance of cars

The development of cars has had an enormous effect on people’s way of life throughout much of the world. Probably no other invention, discovery or technological advance has created greater or more rapid changes in society.

 

VOCABULARY NOTES

truck грузовой автомобиль

van (авто) фургон

to refer to иметь отношение к чему-либо; ссылаться на…

relaxing break отдых, передышка

feature особенность, признак

car safety features средства безопасности автомобиля

drive in (s) сервис (не выходя из автомобиля)

to trace (to) восходить к источнику или периоду в прошлом

approximately приблизительно, приближённо

output продукция; выпуск

showroom демонстрационный зал для показа образцов товара

employment занятие; работа

major важный, главный

to reduce уменьшать, сокращать

to result from происходить в результате; проистекать

 

EXERCISES

I. Read the following text and translate it into Russian.

II. Give Russian equivalents of the following:

no longer live lonely lives; for a relaxing break; has brought about many features; out-of town; shopping centers; horse-drawn carriage; huge roads; horseless carriage; can be traced to Europe; half of the world’s output; to set up car industries; problems of noise and pollution; safety features; seat belts.

III. Put about 15 key questions to the text and answer them.

IV.What are the questions to which the following are the answers? (Use the text).

1. Ways of life changed greatly in many countries.

2. The car became a major form of transportation first in the United States.

3. Only rich people could afford cars.

4. Many developing nations want to set up car industries.

5. The car has also brought many problems.

6. Problems of car use have been addressed in a number of ways in recent years.

V.Retell the text.

IMPACT ON SOCIETY

The car has given many people freedom of movement. It enables them to decide where they want to go and when. The car influences where people live and work and how they spend their leisure time.

When the first cars were produced, only the well-to-do could afford them. Soon, however, prices declined as production increased in response to the growing demand. The lower prices put the car within reach of more and more people. Well-off urban residents found car ownership cheaper then keeping a horse and carriage. The growth in car ownership led to the building of more and better roads, which further increased travel.

Although cars were first bought mainly by affluent city dwellers, it was country people who became the first large-scale group of car owners. Many were farmers or residents of small towns that served farmers, in the early 1900s, those people became the first mass group of car buyers. Cars and trucks enabled farmers to sell their goods faster and farther away, and to travel more often and in greater comfort than ever before.

Before the development of cars, urban workers walked, cycled, or rode on railway trains or horse-drown vehicles to their jobs. But as roads improved and car ownership expanded during the 1920s, people increasingly moved to the suburb because of the freedom provided by car ownership. By the mid-1950s, even factories had begun to relocate in the suburbs.

Economic impact. Such industrialized nations as the United or no car production — for example, Norway and New Zealand — the widespread use of cars has become vital to the economy. Filling stations, motels, restaurants, and other businesses that serve car travelers are of major importance to the economic well-being of all industrialized countries and increasingly of developing ones. In addition, many developing nations have begun making motor vehicles or parts to stimulate industry and to provide the vehicles needed for growth. For example, China has promoted broad-based car manufacturing, and the Philippines has expanded parts production for export to car manufacturers in other countries.

Environmental impact. As cars burn petrol, they release hydrocarbons, carbon monoxide, and nitrogen oxides into the air and so pollute it. Air pollution endangers people’s health and damages crops and livestock. Cars produce terrible pollution in many of the world’s big cities. Especially severe pollution occurs in such cities as Los Angeles, Mexico City, Tokyo, and Madrid, where the streets and roads are choked with traffic.

In many countries, steps have been taken to control air pollution caused by cars as well as by other sources. Agencies that enforce these regulations set emission standardsthat limit the amount of pollution new cars may produce.

Car manufacturers have made great progress in reducing the emission of major pollutants by meeting the increasingly strict environmental standards. For example, since the 1960s the emission of hydrocarbons and carbon monoxide by American-built cars has been reduced by 96 per cent and nitrogen oxides by 76 per cent. The reduction has been achieved largely with the installation of acatalytic converter in the exhaust system of cars. The device changes carbon monoxide and hydrocarbons into carbon dioxide and water vapor.

VOCABULARY NOTES

impact удар, толчок; влияние, воздействие

to enable давать возможность что-либо сделать; облегчать

well - to - do состоятельный, обеспеченный

carriage экипаж, коляска

affluent богатый, изобильный

dwelling жильё, жилище; проживание

vehicle перевозочное средство

widespread широко распространённый

vital жизненно важный

filling station заправочная станция

to promote выдвигать; поощрять; рекламировать

to pollute загрязнять

air pollution загрязнение воздуха

livestock живой инвентарь; домашний скот

to choke загромождать

 

EXERCISES

I. Read the text and note the main facts.

II. Tryto explain in English the meaning of the following words:

impact; leisure time; well-to-do people; in response to; to travel in comfort; industrialized nations; to promote; air pollution.

III. Topics for discussion:

1. Why was it country people who became the first large-scale group of car owners?

2. Why the widespread use of cars has become vital to the economy?

3. What steps have been taken in big cities to control air pollution caused by cars as well as by other sources?

PROBLEMS OF SAFETY

Each year motor vehicle accidents kill an estimated 300,000 people throughout the world. A high proportion of those people are young people. In fact, more Americans from 5 to 32 years old die as a result of traffic accidents than of any other cause. Young people also have the highest accident rate of all drivers.

Drivers are chief factor in vehicle safety because they are responsible for about two-thirds of all accidents. They cause accidents by speeding, driving in the wrong lane, making improper turns, and breaking other rules of safe driving. Many traffic deaths involve drunken drivers. Alcohol slows a driver’s reflexes, reduces alertness and concentration, impairs vision, and clouds judgment. The growing use of illegal drugs by drivers is also a serious safety problem.

The car itself has become safer over the years because of advances in its design and manufacture. Car manufacturers must meet strict government standards designed to prevent accidents and to protect drivers and passengers. The standards to prevent accidents involve such things as the installation of government-specified lights, reflectors, brakes, tyres, windows, windscreen wipers, and dashboard controls. Standards to protect car occupants include the installation of automatic seat belts or airbags, head restraints, and bumper systems. Seat belts are probably the main safety equipment. A driver must not assume that a car’s engine, brakes, lights and steering system always operate properly. All equipment should be tested frequently.

Modern road building techniques have increasingly lowered the risk of car accidents. To build safe roads, engineers consider such factors as road foundations and surfaces, lighting, safety barriers and grading. They carefully plan bypasses, road junctions, slip roads leading onto major motorways, traffic signals, and the number lanes.

EXERCISES

Read the text and speak on the problems raised in it; say what points in the text you consider most important and why.

CARS: PASSION OR PROBLEM

For some people, the car is a convenient form of transportation. But for others, the car is an exciting hobby. Some people spend their lives collecting valuable cars. Others drive them in races, including the Mille Miglia in Italy, the Carrera Panamericana in Mexico, and the world - famous Indianapolis 500.

For many people, cars are more than transportation: They are a source of passion and pleasure. Yet cars can also be a source of many problems.

In 1903, Henry Ford began selling the Model T car for $825. His company, Ford Motors, was the first to produce cars in large numbers. This made the car available to large numbers of people and helped them to travel long distances quickly and easily. The car has brought people much closer to places of work, study, and entertainment.

Many people also work in car-related industries: fixing cars, washing cars, advertising cars, and selling car products such as stereos and cellular phones.

Most Americans buy a new car every five or six years. This means that one American may own a dozen cars in a lifetime. In fact, there are more cars then people in the United States. In New York City, 2,5 million cars move in and out of the city each day. In this traffic, the average speed is sometimes 8,1 miles per hour. This speed could easily be reached by riding a horse instead of driving a car. But New Yorkers continue to drive, just as people do in California, where freeways are often crowded.

Some environmentalists believe that forms of public transportation such as buses and trains have not been fully developed in the United States. They try to teach others that public transportation saves fuel and helps to protect the environment

Many people are unhappy with car traffic and pollution, as well as with the use of beautiful land for building new roads. One environmentalist, Jan Lundberg, left his Mercedes-Benz in Los Angeles and moved to the forests of northern California. There he works on the Auto-Free Times, a newspaper that teaches people how to live without driving. Lundberg travels on foot, on bicycle, or by bus. Before he decided to live without a car, Lundberg worked for the oil companies, studying the prices of gasoline.

Lundberg and other environmentalists' dream of turning parking lots into parks and replacing cars with bicycles, but most people around the world believe that the car is a necessary part of life in today’s world. Still, there is an important question that must be answered: What kind of fuel will we use when gasoline is no longer available? Lundberg believes that by the year 2021, there will no longer be oil for gasoline makers to use. To solve this problem, car companies in Korea, Japan, Europe, and the United States are trying to develop an electric car that will not require gasoline at all.

The electric car is not a new idea. It had success with American women in the early 1900s. Women liked electric cars because they were quiet and did not pollute the air. Electric cars were also easier to start than gasoline-powered ones. But gasoline-powered cars were faster, and in the 1920s they became much popular.

The electric car was not used again until the 1970s, when there were serious problems with availability of oil. Car companies began to plan for a future without gasoline. The General Motors Company had plans to develop an electric car by 1980; however, oil became available again and this car was never produced.

Today there is a new interest in the electric car, which is partly related to a passion for speed and new technology. In1977, engineer Paul MacCready, designed a human-powered airplane that successfully completed a three-mile flight.

A similar airplane crossed the English Channel in 1977, followed by a solar-powered airplane. In 1987, the Sunraycer, a solar-powered car, won a 2,000-mile race in Australia. As a result of this success, the General Motors Company began new work on the development of the electric car. The Toyota Company recently decided to spend $800 million a year on the development of new car technology. Many engineers believe that the electric car will lead to other forms of technology being used for transportation.

Cars may change, but their importance will not. Cars are important to nearly everyone, including engineers, businesspeople, environmentalists, and even poets. Poet Curt Brown believes that cars are part of our passion for new places and new experiences. According to Brown, this “very, comfortable flying chair” will continue to bring us travel and adventure, no matter how it changes in the future.

 

EXERCISES

I. Number the following main ideas in order they appear in the text:

1. Soon there will be no oil to fuel cars.

2. Cars, whether gasoline or electric powered, will always be important.

3. Cars can cause problems.

4. To some people, cars are more than transportation.

5. Some environmentalists teach people how to live without cars.

6. People in the United States need cars to go to school, to work, and to places of entertainment.

II. Complete the following lists with information from the text:

Advantages of the car.

1. Some people enjoy…

2. People can travel…

3. People are closer to…

4. Some people make money by…

Disadvantages of the car.

1. Lots of traffic and…

2. Cars use more fuel than…

3. Beautiful land is replaced with…

4. Gasoline may no longer be…