Meanings of the verb MAY/MIGHT.

1. Supposition implying uncertainty. In this meaning may (or migh t, which emphasizes the idea of uncertainty) are used only in affirmative and negative sentences.

                  She may be at home. (Perhaps she is at home.)

                  She may not be at home. (Perhaps she is not at home.)

It’s too late to phone him now. He may be sleeping. (Perhaps he is sleeping)

Why is Kate so late? – She may have missed the train. (Perhaps she has missed the train)

Compare with:

                  She can’t be at home. (She is certainly not at home.)

                  She can’t have arrived. (She hasn’t arrived yet)

May + simple infinitive (with verbs admitting the use of continuous tenses) refers the action to the future:

                  I may go to London tomorrow.

 

2. Permission.

May + simple infinitive is used to ask, give or refuse permission mostly in a formal style. Might is used only in interrogative sentences.

                  May I borrow the car?

                  Students may not use the staff car park.

                  Might I come in?

Note: may/might are not used to talk about permission which has already been given or refused, about freedom which people already have, or about rules or laws. Instead, we use can, could or be allowed.

                  These days, children can / are allowed to do what they like.

                  I could / was allowed to read what I liked when I was a child.

Might is used to report the giving of permission in indirect speech:

                  What are you doing here? – The manager said that I might look around.

3. Disapproval, reproach.

Might + simple or perfect infinitive is used for criticism.

                  You might help me carry the parcel.

                  You might have warned me about it.

4. Possibility in the past.

Might + perfect infinitive can correspond to Russian sentences with “чуть не”.

                  He might have fallen, if I hadn’t supported him.

5. Intention.

May / might as (just) well + simple infinitive is a very mild way of expressing an intention. This structure corresponds to Russian sentences with “пожалуй”.

                  I may / might as well stay at home tonight.

                  Meanings of the verb MUST.

1. Supposition implying strong probability. In this meaning the verb must is used with all forms of the infinitive:

                  He must be ill. He looks so pale.

                  The book is not on the shelf. Somebody must be reading it.

                  It’s 8 o’clock. He must have come home.

                  It must have been raining all night.

Must expressing supposition is not used with reference to the future. In this case we must use its lexical equivalents (probably, likely):

                  He is likely to come soon.

To express supposition with negative meaning one should use the verb to fail, negative prefixes or words with a negative meaning.

                  He must have failed to get our e-mail.

                  He must have been un aware of it.

2. Obligation, duty, necessity. Only the simple infinitive can be used after must in this meaning:

                  You must be here before 8 o’clock tomorrow.

                  Must I clean all the rooms?

3. Prohibition (in negative sentences).

                  You mustn’t open the parcel until Christmas day.

Note: the verb can’t is also used in this meaning.

4. Emphatic advice.

                  You must come and see us when you are in London.

                  You must not miss this film.

                  HAVE (GOT) as a modal verb

The meaning of the verb have is obligation or necessity imposed by circumstances. Unlike must, which implies obligation that most often comes from the speaker, have (got) to is used to talk about obligation that comes from ‘outside’ (for instance a regulation or an order that comes from somebody else). Compare:

       I must do some more work; I want to pass my exam.

       In my job I have to work from nine to five.

       I must stop smoking. (I want to)

       I’ ve got to stop smoking (Doctor’s orders)

In this structure, have is used like an ordinary verb (with the auxiliary verb do in questions and negatives). In combination with got have is used as an auxiliary verb.

       When do you have to be back?

       When have you got to be back?

Have got is not normally used to talk about repeated obligation.

       I usually have to be at work at eight.

As a modal verb have can be used in all existing tense forms.

       She knew what she had to do.

       You can borrow my car, but you will have to bring it back before ten.

       I ’m having to work very hard at the moment.

I     had an impression that he was having to force himself to talk.

 

       Meanings of the modal verb TO BE.

1. Plans and arrangements. This structure is used in a formal style to talk about official and other plans and arrangements.

                   The President is to visit China next month.

                   I felt nervous because I was soon to leave home for the first time.

A perfect infinitive can be used to show that the planned event did not happen.

                   I was to have started work last week, but I fell ill.

2. Something that is destined to happen.

                   He didn’t know at that time that he was never to come back home again. 

3. Orders. The structure is used to give orders, often by parents speaking to children.

                   You are to do your homework before you watch TV.

NEED as a modal verb.

Need is most often used as an ordinary verb: the third person singular has –s, and questions and negatives are formed with the help of the auxiliary do.

Everybody need s to rest from time to time.

Do we need to book tickets in advance?

The modal forms of need are mostly used in negative sentences and they normally refer to immediate necessity. They are often used to ask for or give permission – usually permission not to do something. They are not used to talk about habitual, general necessity. Compare:

It’s OK – you needn’t pay for this phone call.

You don’t need to pay for emergency calls in most countries.

Need + perfect infinitive is used to show that the action was performed though it was unnecessary, it was a waste of time. When we want to say that the action was not performed as there was no obligation, we use didn’t have to + simple infinitive. Compare:

I needn’t have watered the flowers. Just after I finished it started raining.

I didn’t have to water the flowers. It rained all day long.

Need can be used in combination with an- ing form with the same meaning as a passive infinitive, especially in British English:

That house needs paint ing. (= needs to be painted)

 

OUGHT TO as a modal verb

Unlike other modal verbs, ought requires the use of to before other verbs. It can be combined with simple, continuous and perfect infinitives.

You ought to be doing your homework.

Ought we to go right now?

It oughtn’t to rain today.

The particle to is not used in question tags.

We ought to warn James about it, oughtn’t we?

Meanings of the verb ought:

1. Advice. Ought is used to advise somebody what to do. The meaning is similar to that of should; it is not so strong as must. The Russian equivalent is “следует” и “надо” in the affirmative sentences and “зря”, “напрасно” in the negative.

                   At your age you ought to be more responsible.

                   People ought not to drive so carelessly.

                   What time ought we to arrive?

Ought + perfect infinitive is used to talk about things which were supposed to happen but did not:

                   I ought to have phoned Alice this morning, but I forgot.

 

2. Deduction. Ought can be used to say that we guess something is probable because it is logical or normal.

                   The new hotel ought to be very comfortable.

                   The weather ought to improve after the weekend.

 

Meanings of the verb SHOULD

1. Obligation, advice. The verb should is synonymous to the verb ought, it can also be used with simple, continuous and perfect infinitives; and in questions it is used to ask for advice or instructions, like a less categorical form of shall.

                   It’s late. The children should go to bed.

                   You shouldn’t miss this opportunity.

                   Should I talk to him about it?

                   You shouldn’t be lying in the sun.

                   You shouldn’t have argued with your mother.

2. Probability. Should can be used to show that we believe something is probable in these circumstances.

                   He should get here soon – he left home at six.

                   She is away, but she should be back tomorrow. (=I have reasons to believe so).

Note: ought to tends to express moral obligation and is not frequent in negative sentences, while should tends to be used for instructions and corrections. But on the whole should and ought to are very similar, and can often replace each other.

                   They ought to be more reasonable, shouldn’t they?

 

                              Meanings of the verb SHALL

1. Asking for instructions. In the first person shall is used to ask for instructions and to offer services. Such sentences often correspond to Russian phrases with an infinitive.

                   Where shall I put this bag? – Куда поставить сумку?

2. Obligation. In formal and archaic style shall is sometimes used with second and third persons to express obligation, like a more direct form of should.

3. Promise, threat or warning.

                   I shall give you a teddy bear for your birthday.

                   He shall regret this.

 

                              Meanings of the verb WILL/WOULD

1. Typical behaviour. W ill is used in order to describe habitual actions. In this meaning will is usually used in affirmative sentences. The verb would can refer the action to the past.

                   She’ll sit talking to herself for hours.

                   When I was a child I would spend all Sundays at the river fishing and boating.

2. Refusal to perform an action or a function. In negative sentences will not / would not expresses unwillingness or refusal to do something.

                   I tried to talk him out of it, but he won’t / wouldn’t listen.

                   The car won’ t start. – Машина никак не заводится.

Sometimes wouldn’t refers the action to the past.

                   My car wouldn’t start this morning.

Exercise 1

Use the proper form of the infinitive after can / could in the following sentences.

1. The combination "ought" can (to pronounce) in nine different ways. 2. The boy heard some noise. Could somebody (to follow) him at this very moment? 3. How was your new goalkeeper? – I suppose he could (to play) better, but it was only our first training session. 4. This manuscript can’t (to write) in the 13^th century, it doesn’t correspond to the style of the time. 5. I can’t (to understand) why Mary didn’t phone us. She can’t (to forget) about it. 6. We can’t (to work) for six months just to find out that it’s all in vain. 7. I've no idea how long I slept, but it can't (to be) more than 20 minutes. 8. You can’t (to listen) to me carefully if you are asking such questions. 9. When I first went to France I could (to read) French but I couldn't (to speak) it. 10. They can’t (to play) tennis. It is already dark. 11. He couldn’t (to be) more than 30 when we met for the first time.

Exercise 2

Translate into English, using can / could or their equivalents.

1. Я обрадовалась, услышав вопрос экзаменатора, потому что могла ответить на него. 2. Я получила хорошую оценку, потому что смогла ответить на дополнительный вопрос. 3. Я могла бы ответить на вопрос Джека, но я была слишком сердита на него. 4. Не может быть, чтобы ребенок ответил на такой трудный вопрос. 5. Не могли бы вы ответить на несколько вопросов? 6. Не может быть, чтобы ты не ответил на такой простой вопрос. 6. Неужели он еще спит? Уже 10 часов! 7. Я не могу уснуть. У тебя нет таблетки снотворного? 8. Твоя сумка слишком тяжелая. Ты не сможешь нести ее сама. 9. Неужели ты сама сшила это платье? 10. Почему он не поздоровался? Он не мог нас не заметить! 11. Можно посмотреть твои новые картины? 12. Этот фильм можно посмотреть в любом кинотеатре. 13. Неужели она уже три часа готовится к тесту? 14. Не может быть, чтобы он вас не правильно понял.

Exercise 3

Use the proper form of the infinitive after may / might in the following sentences.

1. I wonder why they didn’t go on hike. – The weather may (to be) bad. 2. If you want to buy a car you’d better do it now – the price may (to go up). 3. Let’s phone him later, he may (to be) busy now. 4. You might (to tell) me that you wouldn’t come. I wouldn’t have waited for you. 5. I don’t expect him today, but who knows, he might (to come). 6. Where is Lily? – She may (to work) in the library. 7. May I (to offer) you a drink? 8. He said that we might (to use) his office whenever we liked. 9. You might at least (to read) the letter. 10. We may never (to see) each other again. 11. I might (to be late), but I managed to find a taxi.

Exercise 4

Translate into English, using may / might.

1. Спроси его, можно ли нам осмотреть церковь изнутри. 2. Возможно, они как раз сейчас обсуждают этот вопрос. 3. Осторожно! Ты чуть не разбил эту вазу. 4. Они, возможно, обсудят этот вопрос на следующем собрании. 5. Возможно, они уже обсудили этот вопрос. Почему бы тебе не попытаться узнать, что они решили? 6. Ты ведь был свободен вчера. Мог бы встретить сестру на вокзале. 7. Можно мне воспользоваться вашим телефоном? – Да, пожалуйста. 8. Я, пожалуй, прогуляюсь с тобой до автобусной остановки. 9. Вы, возможно, слышали это имя. 10. Я согласен, что разрешить нашему сыну жить отдельно, возможно, было ошибкой. Но я думал, что это, может быть, научит его быть более ответственным.

Exercise 5

Translate into English, using can / could or may / mi ght.

1. Неужели она сказала правду? 2. Возможно, она скажет правду, если ты спросишь ее. 3. Неужели она говорит правду? 3. Она не могла сказать правду, потому что знала, что ей никто не поверит. 4. Не может быть, что она сказала правду, я слишком хорошо ее знаю. 5. Она не смогла сказать ему правду. 6. Возможно, она не сказала всей правды. 7. Неужели она не сказала ему правду? 8. Ты могла бы сказать нам правду, ты же знаешь, что можешь нам доверять. 9. Ты могла бы сказать нам правду сразу же, тогда мы могли бы тебе помочь. 10. Пожалуй, я скажу вам всю правду. 11. Она чуть не рассказала им всю правду, я вовремя ее остановил.

Exercise 6

Rephrase the following using must or likely wherever possible.

1. I am certain that he has forgotten about his promise. 2. The ground is wet. I am sure it has been raining. 3. Evidently she didn’t know about the incident. She looked quite surprised when we told her about it. 4. I am sure the names of the winners will be announced tomorrow. 5. No doubt, Alex is a very talented engineer. His suggestion aimed at improving the method was brilliant. 6. Where is Ann? – She is probably waiting for us in the hall. 7. I don’t think he has anything original to offer. I’m sure he will support your idea. 8. I didn’t see the letter in the morning, when I was leaving; it was probably brought in while I was away. 9. I saw Jack taking a bus. I wonder why he didn’t use his car. – Probably it is being repaired. 10. I am sure he wasn’t in the office when I called. If he had been in, he would have picked up the phone. 11. No doubt, you are very busy now that the exams have started. 12. She has been given bad references and will not find a proper job in the near future.

Exercise 7

Translate into English, using can, may or must wherever possible.

1. Он, наверное, врет. Не мог он прочитать книгу за два дня. Может быть, он просто пролистал ее. 2. Должно быть, Том уже ушел. – Не может быть, чтобы он ушел, не повидавшись со мной. 3. Ты должен вернуть им все деньги. Если ты этого не сделаешь, они могут подать на тебя в суд (to sue smb). 4. Неужели ты им поверил? Они, должно быть, подшутили над тобой. 5. Она понимала, что он должен чувствовать в этот момент. 6. Не нужно расстраиваться, если первая попытка будет неудачной. 7. Должно быть, будет непросто уговорить его сотрудничать с нами. Неужели вы верите, что вам это удастся? 8. Вы непременно должны посетить эту выставку! Будет жаль, если вы ее пропустите. 9. Сейчас не может быть без четверти шесть, твои часы, должно быть, спешат. 10. Нельзя быть таким небрежным! Ты чуть не уронил градусник.

Exercise 8

Translate into English using have to or be to.

1. Моя машина сломалась, и мне пришлось идти пешком. 2. Я знал, что Джессика должна была придти на вечеринку. 2. На следующий день моя жена должна была лететь в Париж, и мне пришлось встать пораньше, чтобы отвезти ее в аэропорт. 3. Все должны быть у автобуса не позднее четырех часов. Если вы опоздаете, вам придется добираться до гостиницы самостоятельно. 4. Мы договорились, что тот, кто придет первым, займет места для остальных. 5. В то время Джуди еще не знала, что мистеру Пендлтону суждено было сыграть особую роль в ее жизни. 6. Друзья, встречавшие меня на вокзале, уже начали волноваться, потому что мой поезд должен бы прибыть на два часа раньше. 7. Можете не рассказывать ему об этом, если не хотите. 8. Вы не должны ничего ему рассказывать, пока не получите дальнейших инструкций. 9. Мы должны были выехать на прошлой неделе, но из-за проблем с визами нам пришлось задержаться в Москве. 10. Я должна была подготовить доклад по литературе, и мне пришлось просмотреть много материала по этой теме.

Exercise 9

Use the proper form of the infinitive after should and ought to in the following sentences.

1. I think everybody should (to write) their name down, just so we know who is here. But I also think that we ought (to agree) not to shout about what we’re doing. 2. We must follow the established procedures. A decision should not (to make) hastily. 3. I really think you ought (to teach) anyone who wants to learn. 4. I thought he looked as if it had knocked him half-witted, and perhaps we ought to (to look) after him; but there was so much to look after. 5. It is only natural that you should (to be) anxious, but it’s all over now. 6. Heaven knows what I should (to do) without your friendship. 7. You should (to read) the book before watching the film. You would have enjoyed it better. 8. Anything we can do to help these poor people ought (to do). 9. I realize now that I shouldn’t (to speak) to her in such a tone. 10. You should (to show) more respect for other people’s opinions.

Exercise 10.

Translate into English using should or need.

1. Тебе не следовало смеяться над ее акцентом – посмотри, как она расстроена. 2. Можете не торопиться, у вас достаточно времени. 3. У нас еще много времени, напрасно мы спешили. 4. Не следует так долго оставаться на солнце, это вредно для кожи. 5. Не надо было учить стихотворение наизусть, вы должны были только прочитать его. 6. Зря ты не пошел с нами в кино. Фильм был отличный. 6. Напрасно ты вел машину так быстро, ты мог попасть в аварию. 7. Не нужно было вести машину так быстро, мы приехали слишком рано. 8. Вы хотите, чтобы я отнесла договор мистеру Грину? – Не нужно. Просто распечатайте его и оставьте на столе. 9. В целом дом в хорошем состоянии, его только нужно покрасить заново. 10. Думаю, не стоит обращать внимание на его слова.

Exercise 11

Translate into Russian paying attention to the meaning of shall and will / would.

1. I shall not be insulted, no, I shall not! 2. Shall I tell you how it all happened? – No, you needn’t. I already know everything. 3. She looked upset, but she wouldn’t explain what was wrong. 4. Sometimes he would bring me little presents without saying why. 5. When you look at clouds they will often remind you of animals. 6. He was a nice boy, but he would talk about himself.

Exercise 12

Work in pairs.

1. Она довольно плохо играет на пианино. Должно быть, у нее давно не было практики. 2. Не следует добавлять так много соли в еду. Это очень вредно. 3. Неужели он решил стать актером? Вряд ли ему удастся преуспеть в этой профессии. 4. Не может быть, чтобы ребенок трогал эти провода. Я ему строго запретил это делать. 5. Самолет должен был прибыть в аэропорт в 5. Должно быть, они сейчас едут в гостиницу. 6. Возможно, она уехала отдыхать. Она говорила, что не может больше работать, и ей нужен отдых. 7. Тебе не следовало напоминать ему о его оплошности. Это, должно быть его обидело. 8. Я изо всех сил пытался уговорить его помочь, но он ни за что не соглашался. Должно быть, он сильно напуган. 9. Не может быть, чтобы она читала все это время. Возможно, она спит. 10. Вам не нужно было приезжать. Если бы мы могли вам помочь, мы бы дали вам знать. 11. Тебе следовало потратить больше времени на подготовку доклада. Вряд ли тебе удастся произвести впечатление. 12. Няня потратила, должно быть, целый час, пытаясь заставить ребенка съесть обед, но он ни за что не хотел открывать рот.

She plays the piano rather badly. She must have been out of practice for a long time. You shouldn’t add so much salt to the dishes. It’s very unhealthy. Can he have decided to go on the stage? He is unlikely to succeed in this profession. The child can’t have touched the wires. I strictly forbade him to do it.   The plane was to arrive at the airport at five. They must be on their way to the hotel now. She may have gone on holiday. She said she couldn’t do any more work and needed a rest.   You shouldn’t have reminded him of his failure. It must have hurt him.   I did my best to persuade him to help but he wouldn’t agree. He must be terribly frightened.  She can’t have been reading all this time. She may be sleeping. You needn’t have come. If we could help, we would have let you know.   You should have spent more time preparing the report. You are unlikely to make a good impression.   The nanny must have spent a whole hour trying to make the child eat his dinner but he wouldn’t open his mouth.

 

 

[1] Subliminal – действующий на подсознание

[2] When an if-clause comes first, it is often separated by a comma.