Реферирование и аннотирование

Реферат – это вторичный текст, построенный на основе смысловой компрессии первоисточника с целью передачи его главного содержания. Материал в реферате излагается с позиций автора исходного текста и не содержит никаких элементов интерпретации или оценки.

Помимо активизации навыков различных видов чтения, действия по смысловому свертыванию текста основаны на семантических операциях, которые способствуют мотивированному усвоению иноязычного материала в процессе применения правил построения необходимых языковых структур и преодоления возникающих при этом лексико-грамматических трудностей.

Реферирование представляет собой рецептивно-репродуктивную деятельность. На первом этапе приема информации речевые действия студентов направлены на декодирование иноязычного текста.

Второй этап состоит в смысловой переработке информации. Как продуктивная деятельность реферирование способствует развитию логичности изложения материала и формирует весь необходимый комплекс речевых навыков и умений.

Владение техникой реферирования – показатель сформированности умений зрелого чтения. Достаточно быстрая переработка информации оригинала свидетельствует об уровне владения изучаемым языком.

Существуют разнообразные классификации типов рефератов. По характеру исходного материала они могут подразделяться на монографические и обзорные; по типам организации ключевого материала: реферат-конспект (информативный реферат) и реферат-резюме (индикативный реферат).

Информативность реферата гораздо выше, чем в первичном документе. Уплотнение информации достигается путем более ёмких в смысловом отношении языковых средств и исключением избыточных элементов. При реферировании должна как можно шире использоваться способность слов абстрагировать и обобщать смысл, что находит выражение в работе с так называемыми “ключевыми словами и словосочетаниями”.

Ключевые слова позволяют с предельной краткостью и необходимой полнотой выразить основное содержание первоисточника. Средний объем учебного реферата составляет от 50 до 100 слов (10-15 предложений).

К рефератам предъявляются определенные требования, основными из которых являются:

1. Требование объективности заключается, прежде всего, в том, что, как отбор материала, подлежащего реферированию, так и изложение сущности работы, объем реферата, степень детализации и т.д., должны определяться теоретическим и практическим значением реферируемого текста, наличием в нем нового, а не личными взглядами, научными интересами и познаниями референта или принадлежностью автора реферируемой работы к той или иной научной школе.

Задачей референта является не критическое рецензирование научной работы, а четкая, лаконичная и объективная информация о ее содержании.

2. Требование полноты реферата, т.е. правильное отражение существа и содержания реферируемой публикации, соответствующее объему, назначению и характеру работы, точность в передаче ее содержания. Если в оригинале главная мысль сформулирована недостаточно четко, в реферате она должна быть конкретизирована и выделена.

3. Требование единства формы, под которым понимают стиль реферата и его терминологию. Здесь особую важность приобретает соблюдение единства терминов и обозначений.

Реферат, как правило, включает следующие части:

а) библиографическое описание первичного документа;

б) собственно реферативная часть (текст реферата);

в) справочный аппарат, т.е. дополнительные сведения и примечания.

Библиографическое описание – это совокупность сведений о произведении печати, дающих возможность получить представление о его содержании, читательском назначении, объеме, справочном аппарате и т.д. Основными элементами библиографического описания являются: заглавие; сведения об авторстве; выходные данные: место издания, наименование издательства или издающей организации, год издания. Факультативными элементами являются: количество страниц, наличие иллюстраций.

Текст реферата следует строить по следующему плану:

а) цель и методика исследования (изучения) или разработки;

б) конкретные данные о предмете исследования (изучения) или разработки, его изучаемых свойствах;

в) временные и пространственные характеристики исследования;

г) результаты и выводы.

Структура реферата и механизм его составления зависит от логических структур реферируемого текста.

При этом способ свертывания текста-описания и текста-рассуждения будет различным.

Текст-описание представляет собой гомогенную систему. В текстах этого типа перечисляется ряд однородных предметов и их свойств, идет выделение каких-то основных явлений или процессов и их составных частей, а также описываются их свойства. В таких текстах можно выделить главные и второстепенные центры описания. По этим признакам устанавливаются критерии значимости информации описательного текста. В данном случае допускается сокращение информации путем редукции некоторых элементов текста-описания.

В тексте-рассуждении все элементы функционируют разнотипно, т.е. это – гетерогенная система. Данный тип текста сокращается путем обобщения отдельных его элементов.

 

Аннотирование

Аннотация представляет собой предельно краткое изложение содержания первичного документа, дающее общее представление о его тематике. Аннотация не может заменить оригинал и ее назначение состоит в том, чтобы дать возможность специалисту составить мнение о целесообразности более детального ознакомления с данным материалом.

В практике обучения смысловой компрессии оригинального текста определен средний размер аннотации в 30-40 слов (3-4 предложения). Описательная аннотация включает от 3 до 10 предложений (от 60 до 100 слов). Аннотация, суммирующая тематическое содержание текста, может быть предельно краткой и состоять из 1-2 предложений.

Требования, предъявляемые к составлению аннотации включают следующее:

1. Лаконичность, т.е. простота и ясность языка текста аннотации, которая выражается в использовании простых предложений и простых временных форм в активе и пассиве, в отсутствии модальных глаголов и их эквивалентов, в замене сложных синтаксических конструкций простыми и т.д.

2. Логическая структура аннотации выражается в четком делении текста на две или три составные части.

3. Соответствие форм аннотации, т.е. в тексте аннотации обязательно вводятся безличные конструкции и отдельные слова (например, глаголы высказывания: сообщается о..., подробно описывается..., кратко рассматривается... и т.д.), с помощью которых происходит введение и описание текста оригинала.

4. Учет видов научно-технической литературы, который, прежде всего, касается оформления титульного листа научно-технической публикации и его отражения в вводной части аннотации.

5. Точность при переводе заглавия оригинала, отдельных формулировок и определений.

6. Использование общепринятых сокращений, слов и т.д.

7. Единство терминов и обозначений.

Аннотации по содержанию и целевому назначению могут быть справочными, описательными, реферативными, рекомендательными и критическими.

Справочные аннотации состоят из двух частей:

– вводной, включающей название работы на иностранном языке, перевод названия, выходные данные источника (книги, журнала и т.д.), количество страниц, таблиц, рисунков, библиографии.

Аннотации имеют следующую структуру:

1. Предметная рубрика, где называется область и раздел знаний, к которому относится аннотируемый источник. Например: Гражданское право; Применение радиоэлектроники в народном хозяйстве.

2. Тема. Не всегда заголовок определяет основное содержание источника. В этом случае тема формулируется самим референтом.

3. Выходные данные источника.

4. Сжатая характеристика материала.

Здесь последовательно перечисляются все положения, затронутые в первой части.

5. Критическая оценка первоисточника.

Данная рубрика может содержаться в каждой аннотации, ее наличие является желательным. Обычно референт излагает свою точку зрения на актуальность материала, указывает на кого рассчитан данный материал, какой круг читателей он может заинтересовать.

 

Основные штампы (clichés) для составления рефератов и аннотаций.

The article deals with … The text tells us about … The author describes (depicts, dwells on, touches upon, explains, introduces, mentions, recalls, characterizes, points out, generalizes, makes a few critical remarks on, reveals, exposes, gives his account of, makes an excursus into, etc.)

Then (after that, further, further on, next) the author passes on to (goes on from... to, goes on to say that, gives a detailed analysis (description, etc.) of, digresses from the subject, depicts, dwells on, touches upon, explains, introduces, mentions, recalls, characterizes, points out, generalizes, makes a few critical remarks on, reveals, exposes, etc).

It is specially noted … The text gives a valuable information on … A mention should be made … Much attention is given to … It is spoken in detail … The article is of interest to … It is reported … It draws our attention to …

A new problem is (are) / was (were) studied Some questions ……… estimated The subject matter ……... investigated ……… analysed …….. considered

The author concludes with a (the) description of (introduction of, the mention of, the analysis of a summary of, the characterization of, (his) opinion of, his recollections of, the enumeration of, the criticism of, some (few) critical remarks about (concerning, etc.), the accusation of, the exposure of, the praises of, the generalization of, an excursus into)

It was found that … To sum up it can be said that It was shown that … To draw a line It is concluded that … To conclude

APPENDIX 3

EXAMINATION TOPICS

VORONEZH INSTITUTE OF THE MINISTRY OF INTERIOR

Voronezh Institute of the Ministry of Interior is a state higher educational and research institution of the Russian Ministry of the Interior. It started its history in 1979 when Voronezh special secondary school was opened. It was intended to train specialists for security units of the Interior. In 1992 Voronezh special secondary militia school was reorgan­ized in a Higher militia school and in 1999 it was given the status of an Institute.

Nowadays the institute gives higher legal and technical education. The struc­ture of the institute includes the radio-engineering department, the law department, the correspondence department, the special department, specialized post-graduate courses, and refresher courses).

There are 24 chairs at the institute. Some of them are the chairs of so­cial-and-humanitarian subjects and some others belong to the radio-engineering de­partment. The law faculty has 7 chairs: of civil and labour law, constitutional and ad­ministrative law, criminal law and criminology, criminal process, criminalistics, state and legal history and theory, detective activities. Specialists in radio-engineering of the Ministry of Internal Affairs divisions are trained at the radio-engineering depart­ment in the following specialities: "Radio-engineering", "Protected communication systems", "Telecommunication systems information safety" and “Information Security”. The law department of Voronezh Institute of the Ministry of Interior gives great possibilities to master two specialities - "Law" and "Law enforcement".

All cadets are privates of the Police Service and wear service uniforms. First and sec­ond year cadets live in the barrack which is next door to the institute building. The daily routine is very strict. It begins with reveille at 6 a.m. and ends with taps at 10 p.m. As a rule they have three periods - lectures, seminars, classes. After the third pe­riod they have dinner in the mass. Then cadets have some time for self-preparation. According to the training curriculum the Institute cadets have special training courses, such as range practice, tactics, drill training. They have all possibilities to prove their physical skills in a number of gymnasia and they train to shoot in the shooting gallery. After a five years term of studies the graduates get a diploma and a special rank of lieutenant of the Police.

The special law faculty is aimed for graduating civil lawyers. The students study the principles of academic law rather than legal principles of Police practicing. Skills of interpretation and logical reasoning are developed. The students read law for five years. According to preference a student may develop their interest in a particu­lar law area. A special law faculty graduate gets a diploma of a lawyer and may serve in any sphere of Russian legal system (prosecution, advocating, judging etc.)

THE SYSTEM OF GOVERNMENT OF GREAT BRITAIN

Britain is a constitutional monarchy. That means it is a country governed by a king or queen who accepts the advice of a parliament. It is also a parliament democ­racy. In theory, the British constitution has three branches: Parliament, which makes laws, the government which 'executes' laws, and the law courts, which interpret laws. Although the Queen is officially head of all three branches, she has little direct power.

The legislative branch – Parliament has two parts: the House of Commons and the House of Lords. Members of the House of Commons are elected by the vote is of 650 constituencies. They are known as MPs, or Members of Parliament. The Prime Minister is advised by a Cabinet of about twenty other ministers. Departments and ministries are run by civil servants, who are permanent officials. Even if the Govern­ment changes after an election, the same civil servants are employed.

Members of the House of Lords (peers) are not elected. About 70 per cent of them are «hereditary peers» because their fathers were peers before them. The other 30 per cent are «life peers», whose titles are not passed on to their children. They are officially appointed by the Queen on the advice of the Government, for various ser­vices to the nation. The Lords of Appeal (Law Lords) serve the House of Lords as the ultimate court of appeal. This appeal court consists of some nine Law Lords who hold senior judicial office. They are prejudged over by the Lord Chancellor and they form a quorum of three to five when they hear appeal cases.

The executive branch of power is vested in Government of Great Britain, headed by the Prime Minister. The Prime Minister is usually the leader of the party that has a majority in the House of Commons. The Prime Minister has considerable individual power to introduce and control policies and to change the Cabinet by ap­pointing new ministers, sacking old ones, or "reshuffling" the Cabinet by moving its members to other Cabinet posts. The Cabinet includes the ministers in charge of ma­jor government departments or ministries. The number of its members ranges from 21 to 29. Since the 18-th century the Cabinet has been responsible for deciding policies and controlling and coordinating government administration. It meets in private and its discussions are secret. When a policy has been decided an individual minister must either support it or resign, because the Cabinet acts as one body with "collective responsibility".

The judicial branch. The most common type of law court in England and Wales is the magistrates' court. There are 700 magistrates* courts and about 30,000 magistrates. More serious criminal cases then go to the Crown Court, which has 90 branches in different towns and cities. Civil cases are dealt with in County courts. Appeals are he and by higher courts. The highest court of appeal in England and Wales is the House of Lords. The legal system also includes juvenile courts and coronets courts (which investigate violent, sudden or unnatural deaths). There are administrative tribunals which make quick, cheap and lair decisions with much less formality. Tribunals deal with professional standards, disputes between individuals, and disputes between individuals and government departments (for example, over taxation).

 

THE SYSTEM OF GOVERNMENT OF THE UNITED STATES

The constitution adopted by the thirteen states in 1789 sets the basic form of government: three separate branches, each one having powers over the others. The ultimate power under the Constitution is not given to the President (the executive branch), or to the Congress (the legislative branch), or to the Supreme Court (the ju­dicial branch).

There are several basic principles' which are found at all levels of American government federal, state, county, local. One of them says that legislators are elected from geographical districts directly by the voters. Another fundamental principle of American government is that because of the system of checks and balances, compro­mise in politics is a matter of necessity, not choice.

The legislative branch of the federal government is represented by Congress. There are two houses of Congress: the Senate and the House of Representatives. The Senate is composed of 100 voting members, two from each of the 50 states. They are elected for a six-year term and the number of their terms is unlimited. The House of Representatives has 435 voting members. The members of the House are called rep­resentatives or Congressmen. They are elected for a two-year term. Congress makes all laws, and each house of Congress has the power to intro­duce legislation. Each can also vote against legislation passed by the other. Congress decides upon taxes and how money is spent. It regulates commerce among the states and foreign countries. It also sets rules for the naturalization of foreign citizens. The President of the United States is elected every four years for a four-year term of of­fice (8 years), but that's the maximum.

The executive branch consists of 14 departments and many independent agencies. The department heads (most of them called secretaries, except the Attorney General) form the president's cabinet.

The President, as chief executive, is the most important government figure. The president negotiates foreign treaties and appoints government heads. He commands the armed forces and sends and receives diplomatic officials. In effect, he makes for­eign policy. As head of the executive branch he sees, to it that laws enacted by the legislature are carried out. He is also the leader of his political party. The president and the vice-president are the only officials chosen in a nation-wide election. Accord­ing to the Constitution a president's office is limited to two terms of 4 years each. It also describes how a president can be removed from office (impeachment procedure).

The third branch of government is the federal Judiciary. Its main installment is the Supreme Court, which watches over the other two branches. It determines whether or not their laws and acts are in accordance with the Constitution. The Su­preme Court consists of a chief Justice and eight associate Justices. They are nomi­nated by the President but must be approved by the Senate. In addition to the Su­preme Court Congress has established 11 federal courts of appeal and, below them, 91 federal, district courts. But the Supreme Court has direct Jurisdictions.

 

STATE SYSTEM OF THE RUSSIAN FEDERATION

Under the Constitution adopted in 1991 Russia is a Presidential Republic. The name of the country is stated by the Constitution as the Russia Federative Republic. The head of the state is President.

All legislative power in the country is vested in the Federal Assembly. It con­sists of two chambers. The Upper Chamber is the Council of Federation. It is made up of the representatives of all the subjects of the Federation (two representatives from each subject). The Council enforces federal laws adopted by the State Duma, and all the decrees issued by the President

The Lower Chamber of the Federal Assembly is the State Duma. It is made up of 450 deputies. The Duma introduces, considers and adopts new bills. A new bill must be approved by a majority vote. In order to become a law, the bill must be also enforced by the Council and then by the President.

The members of the Federal Assembly are elected by popular vote for a four year term. Each Chamber is headed by a Speaker who is elected by the members of the Chamber.

The executive branch is represented by the President and the Government which is headed by the Prime Minister.

The President is the head of the state and the commander-in-chief of the Rus­sian army. The President decides domestic and international matte is, makes treaties, issues decrees, enforces federal laws adopted by the Federal Assembly. The President also forms the Government and appoints the Prime Minister whose candidacy must be approved by the State Duma, Thus the two powers balance each other.

An important role in the Russian state system plays the Constitutional Court. It represents the judicial branch. The Constitutional Court may veto any federal law adopted by the Federal Assembly, or a decree issued by the President if the Court re­gards them contradictory to the Constitution.

The symbol of Russia is a three-colored flag which replaced the red one in 1991. It has three horizontal stripes: white, blue and red. White represents peace, blue represents loyalty, and red stands for valor.

The emblem of Russia is a double-headed eagle, the most ancient symbol go­ing back to the dynasty of the Ruricovichies.

 

 

POLICE FORCES OF GREAT BRITAIN

Each of Britain's fifty-two police forces is responsible for law enforcement in its own area; in addition there are various national and regional connections.

Some special services, such as the Fraud Squad (who investigate financial crimes), are available to any local force in England and Wales. In general, however, the local police forces work independently under their own Chief Constables. Each force is maintained by a local police authority. The exception is London, where the Metropolitan Police are responsible to the Home Secretary.

Police duties cover a wide range of activities, from traffic control to more spe­cialised departments such as river police. Each independent force has a uniformed branch and a Criminal Investigation Department (C1D) with detectives in plain clothes. In addition the police authorities in England and Wales employ 40,000 civil­ians and nearly 5,000 traffic wardens.

Britain has relatively few police - approximately one policeman for every 400 people - and traditionally they are armed only with truncheons except in special cir­cumstances.

However, recent years have seen some major changes in police policy in re­spond to industrial disputes and inner city violence in Great Britain. The situation in Northern Ireland, where the Royal Ulster Constabulary is the local police force, has also meant a change in the style of maintaining law and order. In general, there has been an increase in the number of special units trained in crowd and riot control and in the use of firearms, a controversial area for the British police. The number of po­lice has risen along with the crime rate.

Most countries, for example, have a national police force which is controlled by central Government. Britain has no national police force, although police policy is governed by the central Government's Home Office. Instead, there is a separate po­lice force for each of 52 areas into which the country is divided. Each has a police au­thority - a committee of local county councillors and magistrates.

In most countries the police carry guns. The British police generally do not carry firearms, except in Northern Ireland. Only a few police are regularly armed - for in­stance, those who guard politicians and diplomats or who patrol airports. In certain circumstances specially trained police officers can be armed, but only with the signed permission of a magistrate.

All members of the police must have gained a certain level of academic quali­fications at school and undergone a period of intensive training.

 

 

POLICE FORCE OFTHE UNITED STATES

 

Law enforcement in the USA takes place at many governmental levels: coun­try, municipal, state and federal ones.

Police departments of countries are often called "sheriffs" departments. Sheriff is an officer responsible for order in his county. The position of sheriff holds a unique place in the American policing system. Sheriff is not appointed, he is elected in the USA to make sure that law is obeyed. A deputy sheriff helps sheriff in his woik.

Each city has its own police force that it hires, trains, controls, and organizes, Neither the President nor the governor of a state has direct power over it. Municipal police departments differ from their country law enforcement colleagues in several ways: they have a greater staff and larger financial and equipment resources. In major cities like New York, the police are under the control of a police commissioner, who is appointed by the major for a specific period of time.

State police agencies have rather modem origins. Each state has its own state police and its own criminal laws. This is true with, for example, marriage and divorce laws, driving laws and licenses, drinking laws and voting procedures, But whet\a lo­cal sheriff or municipal police chief think a particular state law to be unjust or unnecessary, this law is not enforced, as a rule, on the territory under their control and highway patrols. In more serious affairs each state is forced to rely its municipal forces.

Federal bodies such as the Secret Service Division and the Narcotics Bureau operate nationwide. Over fifty law enforcement and regulatory agencies are within the jurisdiction of the federal government. Unlike local policing powers, federal agencies have their specific functions and much more narrow powers, these agencies are designed to maintain the balance between an individual, citizen's ability to act freely in society and the society's need for social order.

The US Department of Justice is sometimes called the legal arm of govern­ment. It consists of the Federal Bureau of investigation, the Drug Enforcement Ad­ministration and Immigration and Naturalization Service.

The objectives of the American police ate to protect life and property and safe­guard the individual liberties guaranteed by the Constitution, to prevent crime and disorder and to preserve peace. Policemen are given certain limited powers to pursue these objectives. In the USA the police are armed which is not usually the case in Britain.

 

LAW ENFORCEMENT AGENCIES IN RUSSIA

Soviet militia was created by the working people to protect their rights. The offi­cers of our militia have always displayed courage and heroism in the fight against enemies of our state during the Great Patriotic War as well as in the years of peaceful construction.

The main aim of militia has always been to maintain public order, to protect state and personal property and safeguard the rights of our citizens. Nowadays great attention in the work of militia is paid to prevention of crime, to its suppression. But if a crime has been committed, the militia officers are to solve the crime as quickly as possible. To fulfill these tasks the organs of internal affairs are composed of different departments.

The Criminal Detection Department is one of the most complicated police ser­vices. The main responsibility of the officer of the Criminal Detection Department is to detect the criminal that is to locate and apprehend him. In many cases the detective must trace a fugitive who is hiding.

The office is of the Criminal Investigation Department collect facts to prove the guilt or innocence of the suspect. The final test of a criminal investigation is in pres­entation of evidence in court. Corpus delicti must be established, the defendant must be identified and associated with the crime scene. The investigator must also provide competent witnesses.

Economic Crimes Department fights against those who don't want to live an honest life. The responsibility of the officers of this Department is to reveal the criminal activity of those who commit embezzlement and other economic crimes, bring them to justice.

The State Auto-Inspection is responsible for traffic regulation and safety on the roads. The Transport Militia maintains law and order on the railway, airlines and wa­terways of the country.

The Juvenile Inspection handles «difficult» juveniles and their careless parents. They also do much work to prevent juvenile delinquency.

The Correctional System is supposed to rehabilitate offenders through labor. This is the purpose of correctional establishments.

A new service for the fight against organized crime has been created in our police. Organized crime operates on fear, bribery and force. Police officers of organ­ized crime department are devoting their efforts to collect sufficient evidence to bring gang leaders to justice.

 

INTERPOL

Interpol is an international corporation founded in 1923 as a service organiza­tion devoted to coordinating actions against international criminals.

Interpol is a recognized intergovernmental police force whose task is to hunt down the international criminal. Among the fist to fight international terrorism and sky-jacking, Interpol still leads the war on narcotics, assists a number of nations in the continuing search for wanted Nazi war criminals. One of the most highly re­spected groups in the world, Interpol, like any other police force is under gov­ernmental control to safeguard the basic rights of every citizen. It operates according to a strict code of behaviour and adheres to the highest ethical standards.

Interpol has never been recognized or established by any international charter or treaty and has no police powers. Because of Interpol's cooperation with the UN particularly in the area of dings, Interpol was recognized as an intergovernmental or­ganization.

Interpol members ate, for the most part, police and not governmental represen­tatives, although certain governments have sent observes from their military, intelli­gence, customs, post office, and immigration departments.

Interpol does not have powers of arrest or any investigative rights. Its function is to disseminate information. Interpol is much like any large corporation with bu­reaus in various countries and with representatives from these offices also stationed at the main office.

Interpol is divided into four main bodies - the General Assembly, the Executive Committee, the General Secretariat and the National Central Bureaus.

The Genera) Assembly is composed of the delegates from each member coun­try. It is «the Supreme Authority». The General Assembly controls the policy of the organization.

The Executive Committee is a nine-member board made-up of the president, two vice-presidents, and six delegates chosen by the General Assembly.

The General Secretariat, the permanent body is Interpol's business division. It contains the «permanent departments» four of which specialize in certain crimes: one handles murder, burglary, assault, larceny, car theft, and missing persons; another deals with bank frauds and other types of embezzlement; a third with drug traffic and morals offenses; and a fourth deals with forgery and counterfeiting.

The National Central Bureaus are the Interpol offices in various countries. Each NCB is empowered to communicate directly with and exchange information with any other NCB.

 

SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

In recent years, scientific and technological developments have drastically changed life on our planet as well as our views both of ourselves as individuals in so­ciety and of the Universe as a whole.

Today, science and technology arc closely related. Many modem technologies such as nuclear power and space flights depend on science and the application of sci­entific knowledge and principles. Each advance in pure science creates new oppor­tunities for the development of new ways of making things to be used in daily life. In turn, technology provides science with new and more accurate instruments for its investigation and research.

Technology refers to the ways in which people use discoveries to satisfy needs and desires, to alter the environment, to improve their lives. Throughout human his­tory, men and women have invented tools, machines, materials and techniques, to make their lives easier.

Of course, when we speak of technology today, we are looking at it in a much narrower sense. Generally, we mean industrial technology, or the technology that be­gan about 200 years ago with the development of power-driven machines, growth of the factory system, and mass production of goods that has created the basis for our modem society. Today we often say that we Jive in an age of science and technology. According to one estimate, 90% of all the scientists who ever lived, were alive and active in the 1970-s. This increased scientific activity has brought new ideas, proc­esses, and inventions in ever-growing amount

The scientific revolution that began in the 16th century was the first time that science and technology began to work together. Thus, Galileo, who made revolution­ary discoveries in astronomy and physics, also built an improved telescope and patented a system of lifting water. However, it was not until the 19th century that technology truly was based on science and inventors began to build on the work of scientists. For example, Thomas Edison built on the early experiments of Faraday and Henry in his invention of the first practical system of electrical lighting. So too, Edison carried on his investigations until he found the carbon filament for the elec­tric bulb in a research laboratory. This was the first true modem technological re­search. In a sense, the history of science and technology is the history of all human­kind.

 

INTERNET

The Internet is a worldwide network of computers and computer networks that can communicate with each other using the Internet Protocol. Any computer on the Internet has a unique IP address that can be used by other computers to route information to it. Hence, any computer on the Internet can send a message to any other computer using its IP address. These messages carry with them the originating computer's IP address allowing for two-way communication. The Internet is thus an exchange of messages between computers.

As of 2008^[update], an estimated 21.9% of the world population has access to the Internet with the highest access rates (measured as a percentage of the population) in North America (73.6%), Oceania/Australia (59.5%) and Europe (48.1%). In terms of broadband access, Iceland (26.7%), South Korea (25.4%) and the Netherlands (25.3%) led the world.

The Internet works in part because of protocols that govern how the computers and routers communicate with each other. The nature of computer network communication lends itself to a layered approach where individual protocols in the protocol stack run more-or-less independently of other protocols. This allows lower-level protocols to be customized for the network situation while not changing the way higher-level protocols operate. A practical example of why this is important is because it allows an Internet browser to run the same code regardless of whether the computer it is running on is connected to the Internet through an Ethernet or Wi-Fi connection. Protocols are often talked about in terms of their place in the OSI reference model (pictured on the right), which emerged in 1983 as the first step in an unsuccessful attempt to build a universally adopted networking protocol suite.

For the Internet, the physical medium and data link protocol can vary several times as packets traverse the globe. This is because the Internet places no constraints on what physical medium or data link protocol is used. This leads to the adoption of media and protocols that best suit the local network situation. In practice, most intercontinental communication will use the Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM) protocol (or a modern equivalent) on top of optic fibre. This is because for most intercontinental communication the Internet shares the same infrastructure as the public switched telephone network.

At the network layer, things become standardized with the Internet Protocol (IP) being adopted for logical addressing. For the World Wide Web, these "IP addresses" are derived from the human readable form using the Domain Name System (e.g. 72.14.207.99 is derived from www.google.com). At the moment, the most widely used version of the Internet Protocol is version four but a move to version six is imminent.

At the transport layer, most communication adopts either the Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) or the User Datagram Protocol (UDP). TCP is used when it is essential every message sent is received by the other computer where as UDP is used when it is merely desirable. With TCP, packets are retransmitted if they are lost and placed in order before they are presented to higher layers. With UDP, packets are not ordered or retransmitted if lost. Both TCP and UDP packets carry port numbers with them to specify what application or process the packet should be handled by. Because certain application-level protocols use certain ports, network administrators can manipulate traffic to suit particular requirements. Examples are to restrict Internet access by blocking the traffic destined for a particular port or to affect the performance of certain applications by assigning priority.

Above the transport layer, there are certain protocols that are sometimes used and loosely fit in the session and presentation layers, most notably the Secure Sockets Layer (SSL) and Transport Layer Security (TLS) protocols. These protocols ensure that the data transferred between two parties remains completely confidential and one or the other is in use when a padlock appears in the address bar of your web browser. Finally, at the application layer, are many of the protocols Internet users would be familiar with such as HTTP (web browsing), POP3 (e-mail), FTP (file transfer), IRC (Internet chat), BitTorrent (file sharing) and OSCAR (instant messaging).

Voice over Internet Protocol (VoIP) allows data packets to be used for synchronous voice communications. The data packets are marked as voice type packets and can be prioritized by the network administrators so that the real-time, synchronous conversation is less subject to contention with other types of data traffic which can be delayed (i.e. file transfer or e-mail) or buffered in advance (i.e. audio and video) without detriment. That prioritisation is fine when the network has sufficient capacity for all the VoIP calls taking place at the same time and the network is enabled for prioritisation i.e. a private corporate style network, but the Internet is not generally managed in this way and so there can be a big difference in the quality of VoIP calls over a private network and over the public Internet.

 

ALARM SYSTEM SECURITY

Should the intruder not be aware that a system in fitted then at least he will be scared off by the alarm sounding before stealing or doing any damage other than that of the forced entry. In many cases the alarm will sound the first attempt and so the intruder will not actually set foot in the premises. To fulfill this purpose the alarm must therefore produce a loud, clear and insistent sound which will carry over a wide, area. Large bells powered from the mains or heavy duty batteries are generally used, mounted in position where the sound will travel far and not be masked. Small alarm devices operated by torch batteries cannot really achieve this requirement.

The reliability of an alarm unit cannot easily be determined in advance, as it is only when installed and operating that any basic unreliability will show up. Any electronic component is capable of failure. Failures can be sudden or gradual, partial or catastrophic; they can be predictable by previous examination or they can be un­foreseen. An average failure rate for any component is arrived at by test procedures which predict the mean time to failure of a sample and the number of failures per thousand components.

This is not very reassuring when so much depends on it and it proves that 100% reliability cannot be guaranteed for any equipment employing electronic com­ponents. It is, of course, obvious that the fewer components there are the greater the overall reliability because each component constitutes a reliability hazard. Some alarm circuits fairly bristle with electronic components to give various desirable fea­tures but each of these could add to the possibility of failure. One circuit used no fewer than eight active semiconductor devices (transistors, integrated circuits and diodes) as well as many passive components such as resistors and capacitors. In contrast, another control circuit uses only two semiconductors; one of which would have little effect on the circuit if it failed and the other is active for only a fraction of a second to initiate the alarm.

The above examples do not necessarily indicate that any individual unit using a large number of components will frequently break down, while one with fewer parts will rarely if ever do so. It does mean that, statistically, the complex circuit is more likely to break down and taking a batch of several thousand units there will almost certainly be a higher incidence of faults than with the simpler device. This of course is assuming that the design parameters are such that the components are all operated within their specified ratings.

Another reliability factor is the choice of components; some types have proven much more reliable than others. For example, certain types of transistor have an ex­cellent dependability record whilst others have a high failure rate. Some relay switches produce a high resistance when not operated for a long period.

 

MY FUTURE PROFESSION

I'm going to talk about my future profession. I shall be specialized in alarm and fire alarm systems. My colleagues and I will have the following tasks: firstly, to elaborate, to mass-produce and to put into operation the necessary security equipment; secondly, to prevent immediately crimes against property and eco­nomic interests of the state of the people; thirdly, to compensate the owner for losses incurred.

Just a few words about the history of non-departmental security in Russia. It was established in 1952 to safeguard trading and industrial objects. In the 1960s alarm and fire-alarm systems began to be introduced, protection of flats was centralized. In 1971 the first centralized security units were organized.

It should be said that at present non-department security is staffed with 360 thousand officers, there are 79 head offices and departments incorporated into Regional Internal Affairs Agencies, 2000 district departments and divisions, 6530 mobile specially trained and equipped detention groups.

It is interesting to note that my colleagues safeguard about one million objects. Among them are industrial enterprises, banks, museums, offices, residences, storage rooms for weapons, jewelry, drug-containing medicines and pris­ons.

It goes without saying that security equipment used nowadays has progressed greatly. My colleagues use about 200 security devices produced in Russia or other countries.

In conclusion I'm glad to say that my colleagues are successfully vying with private security groups for better-paid jobs. To become a highly-qualified specialist I study at Voronezh Institute of Russian Ministry of the Interior. I am proud of my future profession because it is noble and necessary for the people.

 

 

APPENDIX IV