Attributes: descriptive and limiting

A descriptive attribute is used to describe an object or to give some additional information about it. It does not affect the use of the article:

His book, a bestseller when it was published in 1977, was adapted by Stanley Kubrick into a film starring Jack Nicholson and Shelley Duvall.

A limiting attribute points out a particular object, singles it out of the rest. Very often of-phrases are limiting attributes:

The health of millions of people may be at risk.

! but it is not always the case.

In Odessa, Ukraine, the force really has been awakened with a statue of Vladimir Lenin being converted into one of the dark lord himself, Darth Vader.

Prepositional gerundial phrases are usually limiting attributes.

Lukashenko welcomes Depardieu, who took Russian citizenship in 2013 in the hope of escaping high taxes in France.

Prepositional gerundial phrases are treated as descriptive when the head-noun is an object of the verb to have:

But Granny had a way of making us feel like each of us got something special.

Articles with semantic groups of nouns:

Articles with the names of illnesses

• Usually uncountable, with the zero article: pneumonia, diabetes, conjunctivitis, appendicitis, arthritis, bronchitis, angina, asthma etc.

He had contracted acute nephritis — inflammation of the kidneys — together with high blood pressure, and his face, feet and ankles became very swollen.

BUT: to suffer a mild angina attack;

          the hepatitis B virus

• The words for some minor ailments are countable (a/an): a cold, a sore throat, a headache.

* In British English: toothache, earache, stomachache and backache are more often uncountable

* In American English: a cold, a headache, an earache, a backache, a toothache, a stomachache

• Sometimes we use the – with common diseases like the flu, the measles, especially to give a back reference or when a limiting attribute is used:

Now he was looking rumpled and approachable, thin and still a little yellow-tinged after the hepatitis.

Вопрос 28

Прилагательное. Наречие

 

Прилагательное

Общее грамматическое значение: признак предмета, обладающий условной устойчивостью.

Качественные п. выражают качество, относительные п. - отношение к предмету.

П. разнообразны по словообразовательной структуре. Суффиксы п.:

- al (national)

- ful (doubtful)

- less (needless)

- y (daily)

- ive (progressive)

- able (understandable)

Категории прилагательных

П образуют только степени сравнения:

- синтетические (односложные слова, двусложные слова на y,ow,er,ble)

- аналитические (все остальные)

 

Не все прилагательные образуют степени сравнения:

● Не образует ст.ср. качественные прил., которые обозначают абсолютное качество (blind, deal) и относительные п.

Функции прилагательных в предложении:

1. определение (в пре-/пост-позиции)

● о. в постпозиции более эмоциональное

● устойчивые о. в постпозиции: secretary general, president elect, court marshal

2. предикатив (The night was dark)

Большинство прилагательных могут употребляться в обеих функциях.

● Только атрибутивная функция: joint (совместный), live, loan, daily, weekly, monthly

● Только предикативная ф.: glad, averse (unwilling), concerned, awake, ajar, awry, asleep, alike

Различие значений прилагательного:

● a certain person/I’m certain

● ill news/ He’s ill/ It’s ill wind that blows nobody any good.

Субстантивация прилагательных

П.употребляется в функции существительного (a rich, the poor) и обозначает множество или абстрактное понятие (the unforgettable).

Прилагательное - существительное: essential - essentials

Наречие

Н.стали выделять в самостоятельную часть речи относительно недавно.

 

Обобщ.граммат.значение: передает признак действия

Н. определяет как, когда, где, при каких обстоятельствах осуществляется действие, уточняет признак, обозначаемый прилагательным.

Качественные н.:

● образа действия (strangely, sadly, hopelessly)

● меры, степени, количества (highly, enough)

Обстоятельственные н. - показатели времени, пространства, обстоятельств существования:

● направление (Soames went downstairs)

● место (to sit downstairs)

● время (now, today, lately, once, early, presently, still)

 

Словообразовательная характеристика

Наречия бывают:

● простые (today, well, here, now)

● омонимичные прилагательным (fast, hard, long)

● производные - образуются с помощью суффиксов -y,-ward,-wise (crosswise,eastward)

● с двумя формами (close - близко, closely - тщательно; deep - deeply, late - lately, short - коротко, shortly - вскоре)

● сложные (somehow, inside, upstairs)

● составные (for certain, by now, for once)

Словоизменительная характеристика: у н. есть только категория степени сравнения

 

● аналитическая ст.ср.: correctly - more/most

● синт/аналит.ст.ср.: slowly - slowlier/more slowly

● супплетивн.ст.ср.: well - better - the best

Синтетическая функция - обстоятельство

● Качественные наречия сочетаются с глаголами: He had touched his horses smartly with the whip.

● Качественные наречия могут определять прилагательное: He was fast asleep.

● Наречия меры, степени, количества могут употребляться с глаголами и с прилагательными: It’s a little difficult to do it.

● Н. дают оценку всему предложению: Frankly, I’m tired., Briefly, there’s nothing more I can do about it.

● Н. выполняют соединительную функцию: I’ve talked to him several times about the matter, and yet he does nothing about it.

NB Прилагательные на -ly

● costly (дорогой)

● cowardly (трусливый)

● deadly (смертельный, смертоносный)

● friendly

● likely (вероятный)

● lovely

● lonely

● silly

● ugly

● unlikely

 

Инфинитив.

Инфинитив — наиболее отвлеченная форма глагола, в основном разряде действительного залога только называющая действие. Поэтому именно эта назывная форма глагола используется для введения глагольной словарной статьи.

Инфинитив, как и остальные вербалии, может реализоваться в формах вида и залога. Для действительного залога существуют все четыре формы, для пассива —только основной разряд и перфект:

Действительный залог         Пассив

То write. To be writing.                                           To be written. To have been

To have written. To have been                                       written, writing.

It's extremely funny for me to be consoling you. (Snow) Office affairs are easy to start and difficult to finish, particularly in a small town. (Braine)

The infinitive is the non-finite form of the verb which com- bines the properties of the verb with those of the noun, serving as the verbal name of a process. By virtue of its general process-naming function, the infinitive should be considered as the head-form of the whole paradigm of the verb. In this quality it can be likened to the nominative case of the noun in languages having a normally devel- oped noun declension, as, for instance, Russian. It is not by chance that A. A. Shakhmatov called the infinitive the "verbal nominative". With the English infinitive, its role of the verbal paradigmatic head- form is supported by the fact that, as has been stated before, it repre-

sents the actual derivation base for all the forms of regular verbs.

The infinitive is used in three fundamentally different types of functions: first, as a notional, self-positional syntactic part of the sen- tence; second, as the notional constituent of a complex verbal predi- cate built up around a predicator verb; third, as the notional constitu- ent of a finite conjugation form of the verb. The first use is grammati- cally "free", the second is grammatically "half-free", the third is grammatically "bound".

The dual verbal-nominal meaning of the infinitive is expressed in full measure in its free, independent use. It is in this use that the in- finitive denotes the corresponding process in an abstract, substance- like presentation. This can easily be tested by question- transformations. Cf.:

Do you really mean to go away and leave me here alone? → What do you really mean? It made her proud sometimes to toy with the idea. → What made her proud sometimes?

The combinability of the infinitive also reflects its dual semantic nature, in accord with which we distinguish between its verb-type and noun-type connections. The verb-type combinability of the infinitive is displayed in its combining, first, with nouns expressing the object of the action; second, with nouns expressing the subject of the action; third, with modifying adverbs; fourth, with predicator verbs of semi-functional nature forming a verbal predicate; fifth, with auxiliary finite verbs (word-morphemes) in the analytical forms of the verb. The noun-type combinability of the infinitive is displayed in its combining, first, with finite notional verbs as the object of the action; second, with finite notional verbs as the subject of the action.

The self-positional infinitive, in due syntactic arrangements, per- forms the functions of all types of notional sentence-parts, i. e. the sub- ject, the object, the predicative, the attribute, the adverbial modifier. Cf.: To meet the head of the administration and not to speak to him about your predicament was unwise, to say the least of it. (Infinitive sub- ject position) The chief arranged to receive the foreign delegation in the afternoon. (Infinitive object position) The parents' wish had always been to see their eldest son the continuator of their joint scientific work. (In- finitive predicative position) Here again we are faced with a plot to over- throw the legitimately elected government of the republic. (Infinitive

attributive position) Helen was far too worried to listen to the remon- strances. (Infinitive adverbial position)

If the infinitive in free use has its own subject, different from that of the governing construction, it is introduced by the preposition-particle for. The whole infinitive construction of this type is traditionally called the "for-to infinitive phrase". Cf.: For that shy-looking young man to have stated his purpose so boldly — incredible!

The prepositional introduction of the inner subject in the English in- finitive phrase is analogous to the prepositional-casal introduction of the same in the Russian infinitive phrase (i.e. either with the help of the gen- itive-governing preposition для, or with the help of the dative case of the noun). Cf.: Для нас очень важно понять природу подобных соот- ветствий.

With some transitive verbs (of physical perceptions, mental activity, declaration, compulsion, permission, etc.) the infinitive is used in the semi-predicative constructions of the complex object and complex sub- ject, the latter being the passive counterparts of the former. Cf.:

We have never heard Charlie play his violin. → Charlie has never been heard to plan his violin. The members of the committee expected him to speak against the suggested resolution. → He was expected by the members of the committee to speak against the suggested resolution.

Due to the intersecting character of joining with the governing pre- dicative construction, the subject of the infinitive in such complexes, naturally, has no introductory preposition-particle.

The English infinitive exists in two presentation forms. One of them, characteristic of the free uses of the infinitive, is distinguished by the pre-positional marker to. This form is called traditionally the "to- infinitive", or in more recent linguistic works, the "marked infinitive". The other form, characteristic of the bound uses of the infinitive, does not employ the marker to, thereby presenting the infinitive in the shape of the pure verb stem, which in modern interpretation is understood as the zero-suffixed form. This form is called traditionally the "bare infini- tive", or in more recent linguistic works, respectively, the "unmarked infinitive".

The infinitive marker to is a word-morpheme, i.e. a special formal particle analogous, mutatis mutandis, to other auxiliary elements in the

English grammatical structure. Its only function is to build up and iden- tify the infinitive form as such. As is the case with the other analytical markers, the particle to can be used in an isolated position to represent the whole corresponding construction syntagmatically zeroed in the text. Cf.: You are welcome to acquaint yourself with any of the docu- ments if you want to.

Like other analytical markers, it can also be separated from its no- tional, i.e. infinitive part by a word or a phrase, usually of adverbial na- ture, forming the so-called "split infinitive". Cf.: My task is not to ac- cuse or acquit; my task it to thoroughly investigate, to clearly define, and to consistently systematise the facts.

Thus, the marked infinitive presents just another case of an analyti- cal grammatical form. The use or non-use of the infinitive marker de- pends on the verbal environment of the infinitive. Namely, the un- marked infinitive is used, besides the various analytical forms, with modal verbs (except the modals ought and used), with verbs of physical perceptions, with the verbs let, bid, make, help (with the latter — op- tionally), with the verb know in the sense of "experience", with a few verbal phrases of modal nature (had better, would rather, would have, etc.), with the relative-inducive why. All these uses are detailed in prac- tical grammar books.

The infinitive is a categorially changeable form. It distinguishes the three grammatical categories sharing them with the finite verb, namely, the aspective category of development (continuous in opposition), the aspective category of retrospective coordination (perfect in opposition), the category of voice (passive in opposition). Consequently, the categori- al paradigm of the infinitive of the objective verb includes eight forms: the indefinite active, the continuous active, the perfect active, the perfect continuous active; the indefinite passive, the continuous passive, the per- fect passive, the perfect continuous passive. E.g.: to take — to be taking

— to have taken — to have been taking; to be taken —to be being taken — to have been taken — to have been being taken.

The infinitive paradigm of the non-objective verb, correspondingly, includes four forms. E.g.: to go —to be going

— to have gone — to have been going.

The continuous and perfect continuous passive can only be used oc- casionally, with a strong stylistic colouring. But they underlie the corre-

sponding finite verb forms. It is the indefinite infinitive that constitues the head-form of the verbal paradigm.

 

Вопрос 30.

(Инфинитив. Особенности, функции.)

       Инфинитив — наиболее отвлеченная форма глагола, в основном разряде действительного залога только называющая действие. Поэтому именно эта назывная форма глагола используется для введения глагольной словарной статьи.

1. Именные черты:

· Употребляется с прямым дополнением

· Может определяться наречием.

2. Глагольные черты:

· Имеет категорию залога

· Имеет категорию временной соотнесенности.

Инфинитив, как и остальные вербалии, может реализоваться в формах вида и залога. Для действительного залога существуют все четыре формы, для пассива —только основной разряд и перфект:

Действительный залог                                   Пассив

То write. To be writing.                                To be written. To have been

To have written. To have been written,              writing.

 

Инфинитив может иметь синтаксическую функцию:

1. Подлежащего: То have asked questions here would have attracted attention. It is useless to discuss a question.

2. Предикатив: To see is to believe. My intention is to get there.

3. Часть составного именного сказуемого: His house was not easy to find.

4. Дополнение: I want to tell them about it before thy discover.I find it necessary to leave this spot.

5. Сложное дополнение (complex object): I want you to do this at once.

6. Определение: There was no one to read these words. I have a lot of work to do.

7. Обстоятельство:

a) Цели: Laws were not made to be broken, laws were made to stay within.

b) Результата: I was too busy to see anyone. He was strong enough to carry this case.

c) Сравнения(образа действия): She nervously moved her hand towards his lips as if to stop him.

d) Обстоятельство сопутствующих обстоятельств (of attendant circumstances): She was driven away, never to revisit her neighbourhood.

8. Часть составного глагольного сказуемого:

· Модального: The train was to leave at five o’clock. I must do it at once.

· Аспектное: We began to read.

9. Complex subject: He is believed to be a famous person.

10. Parenthesis(вводные конструкции): To put it mildly, he was not up to be mark. To speak the truth, I’ve been a little troubled, bit it is over now.