Present Simple (Present Indefinite) 11

Present Continuous 12

Present Simple (Present Indefinite) and Present Continuous 13

EXERCISES16

Unit 3

Present Perfect 21

EXERCISES 24

Unit 4

Present Perfect Continuous 26

EXERCISES 27

Unit 5

Past Simple (Indefinite) 30

Past Continuous 31

EXERCISES 33

Unit 6

Past Perfect 40

Past Perfect Continuous 44

EXERCISES 46

Unit 7

Future Simple (Future Indefinite) 52

Future Continuous 52

Future Perfect 53

Future Perfect Continuous 53

Different Means of Expressing Future Actions Compared 53

EXERCISES 55

Unit 8

Means of Expressing Future Actions Viewed from the Past 57

Rules of the Sequence of Tenses 58

EXERCISES 59

Unit 9

Voice 65

Active Voice 65

Passive Voice 65

Types of Passive Constructions 65

EXERCISES 66

CHAPTER II: MODAL VERBS 71

Unit 10

Mood 71

Modal Verbs 71

can/could 72

EXERCISES 73

Unit 11

may/might 77

can and may compared 78

must 78

must and may compared 79

EXERCISES 79

Unit 12

have to 88

be to 88

must, have to and be to compared 89

EXERCISES 90

Unit 13

ought to 93

shall 93

should 94

must, ought to and should compared 95

EXERCISES 95

Unit 14

should, ought to, was/were to + Perfect Infinitive compared 100

will and would 100

need 102

dare 102

shouldn’t, oughtn't to, needn't + Perfect Infinitive compared 103

Expressions of Absence of Necessity 103

EXERCISES 103

CHAPTER III: FORMS EXPRESSING UNREALITY 109

Unit 15

Forms Expressing Unreality 109

Unreality in Object Clauses 111

EXERCISES 112

Unit 16

wish -clauses 114

Other Types of Object Clauses 115

Unreality in Appositive and Predicative Clauses 116

Unreality in Adverbial Clauses of Purpose 116

Unreality in Adverbial Clauses of Comparison 117

EXERCISES 118

Unit 17

Complex Sentences with a Subordinate Clause of Condi­tion 123

Complex Sentences with Adverbial Clauses of Concession 125

Unreality in Exclamatory Sentences 125

EXERCISES 125

Unit 18

Free Use of Unreality 130

Traditional Use of Unreality 131

Tense Forms Expressing Unreality 131

EXERCISES 132

CHAPTER IV: VERBALS (NON-FINITE FORMS OF THE VERB) 137

Unit 19

Infinitive and ing -form 137

General System of Verbal Functions 139

Participle 141

Unit 20 Verbals as Subject

Infinitive as Subject 143

ing -form as Subject 143

Infinitive and ing -form as Subject Compared 144

EXERCISES 144

Unit 21 Verbals as Predicative

Infinitive as Predicative 145

ing -form as Predicative 145

Infinitive and ing -form as Predicative Compared 145

EXERCISES 146

Unit 22 Verbals as Predicate

Infinitive as Predicate 147

ing -form as Predicate 147

Unit 23 Verbals as Part of a Compound Verbal Predicate

Infinitive as Part of a Compound Verbal Predicate 148

ing -form as Part of a Compound Verbal Predicate 148

Participle as Part of a Compound Verbal Predicate 148

EXERCISES 149

Unit 24 Verbals as a Second Action Accompanying the Action

Of the Predicate Verb

Infinitive as a Second Action 151

ing -form as a Second Action 151

Participle as a Second Action 152

EXERCISES 152

Unit 25 Verbals as Object

Infinitive as Object 155

ing -form as Object 156

Infinitive and ing -form as Object Compared 158

EXERCISES 159

Unit 26 Verbals as Subjective Predicative (Complex Subject)

Infinitive and ing -form as Subjective Predicative (Complex Subject) 169

Participle as Subjective Predicative (Complex Subject) 170

EXERCISES 170

Unit 27 Verbals as Objective Predicative (Complex Object)

Infinitive and ing -form as Objective Predicative (Complex Object) 173

Participle as Objective Predicative (Complex Object) 175

EXERCISES 175

Unit 28 Verbals as Adverbial Modifier

Infinitive as Adverbial Modifier 181

ing -form as Adverbial Modifier 183

Participle as Adverbial Modifier 184

EXERCISES 184

Unit 29 Verbals as Attribute

Infinitive as Attribute 187

Ing -form as Attribute 188

Infinitive and ing -form as Attribute Compared 189

Infinitive and ing -form as Attribute in Sentences with it 189

Participle as Attribute 189

EXERCISES 190

Unit 30 Verbals as Parenthesis

Infinitive as Parenthesis 199

ing -form as Parenthesis 199

Infinitive and ing -form as Parenthesis Compared 199

EXERCISES 200

 

REFERENCES 204

 

CHAPTER I

PARTS OF SPEECH. THE VERB

UNIT 1

 

Parts of Speech

 

Indo-European Family of Languages
Indian	Iranian	Armenian	Germanic	Celtic	Balto-Slavic	Italic
			ENGLISH		RUSSIAN

 

English and Russian have much in common but still differ in grammar. The words of every language fall into classes, which are called parts of speech. Parts of speech differ from each other in meaning, form and function.

 

Parts of speech have different lexical meanings. Nouns name objects; adjectives express characteristics; verbs denote process, state or attitude towards another action, etc. Some parts of speech have different grammatical categories; other parts of speech are invariable -they have only one form.

 

Parts of speech also differ from each other in their syntactic functions (function in the sentence). All words may be divided into two main groups: notional and structural. Notional words have lexical meanings, structural words differ from notional words semantically: their lexical meaning is of general character (in, and, even) and they express relations between words in a sentence.

 

notional parts of speech	functional parts of speech
The Adjective	The Conjunction
The Adverb	The Particle
The Interjection	The Preposition
The Noun
The Numeral
The Pronoun
The Verb

§ The article is a determiner of the noun

 

The Verb

 

Verbs are words denoting actions, activity (to walk, to speak, to play, to study), process (to sleep, to wait, to live), state (to be, to like, to know), relation (to want, can, may).

1) According to the meaning verbs can be divided into two groups — terminative and durative.

Terminative verbs have a final aim in view, to open, to close, to bring, to recognise, to refuse, to break.

Durative verbs do not have such limit, and the action can go on indefinitely, to carry, to live, to speak, to know, to sit, to play. But as most verbs in English are polysemantic they may be terminative in one meaning and durative in another:e.g. to see may have the terminative meaning 'увидеть' and the durative meaning 'видеть'; to know may denote 'знать' and 'узнать'. The meaning of the verb becomes clear from the context:

Cf. I saw him at once.

I saw his face quite clearly.

2) According to their relation to continuous, verbs fall into two groups: dynamic verbs, i.e. verbs which admit of the continuous forms (a) and stative verbs, i.e. verbs which do not admit of the continuous forms (b).

§ a) We were eating dinner when he called.

§ You'll find Mother in the kitchen. She is making a cake. (dynamic)

§ b) I understand what you mean. I don't see him in the crowd. (stative)

 

The list of most commonly used stative verbs:

a) verbs of physical perceptions: to hear, to notice, to see;

b) verbs denoting emotions: to adore, to care for, to dislike, to hate, to like, to love, to respect;

c) verbs denoting wish; to desire, to want, to wish;

d) verbs denoting mental processes: to admire, to appreciate, to believe, to consider, to doubt, to expect, to feel, to imagine, to know, to mind, to recognise, to recollect (припоминать), to remember, to suppose, to think, to trust, to understand;

e) relational verbs: to be, to belong, to consist, to contain, to depend, to deserve, to differ;

f) some other verbs: to agree, to allow, to appear, to taste.

3) English verbs are also classified according to the type of object they take. Verbs that require object to complete their meaning are called transitive (v.t. – verb transitive). Verbs that do not require any object are called intransitive (v.i. – verb intransitive):

§ He lay on the sofa. (v.i.)

§ He laid the book on the shelf. (v.t.)

 

The objects transitive verbs take may be direct (a), indirect (b) or prepositional (c).

§ (a) I'm telling the truth.

§ (b) His mother never gave him advice.

§ (c) Let's talk of something sensible.

 

4) According to the meaning and function English verbs are notional and structural (link-verb and auxiliary). Notional verbs have a lexical meaning:

§ During the war he lived in London.

 

A link-verb is followed by a predicative; together they form a nominal predicate:

§ He was a middle-aged man.

 

Sometimes a verb has no lexical meaning and is called an auxiliary verb. Combined with a notional verb it serves to build up analytical forms.

§ The young man was sitting at the table alone.

Finite Forms of the Verb

English verbs can be divided into finite and non-finite forms. The finite forms have the function of the predicate. The non-finites (infinitive, ing -form and participle) are called the verbals. The finite forms of the verb have the following grammatical categories:

 

1) Person and Number;

2) Tense, Aspect and Phase;

3) Voice;

Mood

 

We find three basic forms of the verb. These forms are: 1) the plain verb stem (infinitive without the particle to); 2) the Past Indefinite, and 3) the past par­ticiple. All verbs can be regular and irregular.

 

The forms of the verb may be of two different kinds - synthetic or analytical. Synthetic forms are built up by a change in the word itself: by means of suffixes (I work, he works, we worked). Analytical forms consist of two components:

§ He has worked hard.

 

Tense, Aspect and Phase

 

Tense is the form of the verb which indicates the time of the action. Aspect is the form of the verb which serves to express the manner in which the action is regarded. There are two opposing sets of aspect forms in English — the Continuous forms and the Non-Continuous (Indefinite) forms. The Non-Continuous (Indefi­nite) forms have a very broad meaning. The Continuous forms have a clear-cut aspect characteristic, which is to represent an action in its tempo­rary development.

 

Besides, there are the Perfect forms which are opposed to the Non-Perfect forms. The grammatical meaning of the Perfect forms is to express retrospectiveness (относительность), which consists of two elements — prior­ity and relevance. In some grammars this category has been given the name phase.

 

1) In discussing the use of English finite forms it is neces­sary to understand that in most cases the choice is free: the form is chosen in accordance with the meaning the speaker wishes to convey and does not depend on the structure of the sentence:

§ He knows English.

§ He knew English.

§ He will know English.

In certain cases, however, the choice of the form is determined by the structure of the sentence, usually the kind of clause in which it is used. For example, the use of the Present Indefinite with reference to the future in a clause of time or condition (a), or the use of a finite form under the rules of the sequence of tenses (b):

§ a) Whenyou feel hungry, I'll bring you some sandwiches.

If I want anything I'll call you up.

§ b) She knew that Henry would be waiting for her.

I wondered if he had kept his promise.

 

In such cases we have the structurally dependent use of finite forms.

 

In still other cases the choice of the finite form in a sub­ordinate clause is determined not so much by the kind of clause as by the lexical character of the head-word, i.e. the word in the principal clause which the subordinate clause refers to. For example, in object clauses subordinated to the verbs to see to, to take care or to makesure the future forms are not used.

§ He'll take care that she comes in time.

§ She saw to it that they had plenty of food in the house.

 

In such cases we have the lexically dependent use of finite forms.

 

2) Closely connected with the above notion is the absolute and relative use of finite forms. The forms may refer an action direct­ly to the present, past or future time. We are dealing in this case with the absolute use of finite forms, which,as a rule, is structur­ally independent.

 

But in certain types of clauses the verb form of the sub­ordinate clause only shows whether the action of the clause is si­multaneous with that of the principal clause, precedes it or follows it. (These relations may be called as simultaneity, priority and posteriority.) In this case we are dealing with the rela­tive use of finite forms. It is usually structurally dependent (see, for example, the rules of the sequence of tenses).

§ He discovered that his wife knew London far better than he did.

§ He knew that she had read his thoughts.

§ He thought that he would hate the place.

 

3) We should differentiate between present-time contexts and past-time contexts.

 

In present-time contexts, i.e. in conversations, letters, newspa­per and radio reports, the situation is viewed from the moment of speaking. Any finite form that is required by the sense can be used in present-time contexts. The only reserva­tion should be made for the Past Perfect and the Past Perfect Con­tinuous and all the Future-in-the-Past forms which are, in present-time contexts, mainly found in reported speech or thought.

 

In past-time contexts, i.e. in narration, the situation is viewed from a past moment. So, the use of finite forms is restricted only to past forms including the Future-in-the-Past.

 

 

UNIT 2