Basic things about AIDS and HIV

In 1985, scientists discovered the human immu- nodeficiency virus (HIV). HIV is a virus that is transmitted from person to person through the ex- change of body fluids

such as blood, semen, breast milk and vagi- nal secretions. Sexual contact is the most common way to spread HIV, but it can also be transmitted by sharing needles when injecting drugs, or during child- birth and breastfeed- ing. As HIV repro- duces, it damages the body's immune system and the body becomes

susceptible to illness and infection. There is no known cure for HIV infection nowadays.

Acquired immune deficiency syndrome, or AIDS, is a condition that describes an advanced state of HIV infection. With AIDS, the virus has pro- gressed, causing significant loss of white blood cells or any of the cancers or infections that result from immune system damage.

Once inside the body the virus attacks specialized immune system cells known as CD4 cells. The virus attaches to these cells and infects them by injecting HIV nucleic acids (DNA and RNA) into the cell. New HIV virus then infects other CD4 cells as the cycle re- peats itself.

Is HIV and AIDS the same thing? HIV is the vi- rus which damages the body's immune system. While AIDS defining infections means a person is diagnosed with AIDS. A person can be infected for years with- out having AIDS. Having HIV infection does not mean you have AIDS. Simply put, HIV and AIDS are not the same thing, but they are related to one another. Before HIV infection became widespread in the human population, AIDS defining infections were rare, and almost exclusively in individuals with im- mune suppression, such as chemotherapy and certain types of cancers. AIDS was first recognized in the early 1980s in healthy homosexual men. Adding to the oddity, these men had no recognized cause for im- mune suppression. An infectious cause of AIDS was suggested by geographic clustering of cases, links among cases by sexual contact, mother-to-infant

transmission, and transmission by blood transfusion. Later, isolation of HIV from patients with AIDS strongly suggested that this virus was the cause of AIDS.

Medications can successfully treat many of the symptoms of early symptomatic HIV infection. Anti- retroviral therapy slows the growth of the HIV virus in the body. It works very well in reducing the number of HIV particles in the bloodstream. Although people have suppressed levels of HIV, they can still spread the virus to others through sex or sharing needles.

isolation loss medications

mother-to-infant trans- mission

needle oddity particle progression secretion

semen significant suppression susceptible specialize (v) strengthen (v) transmit (v) white blood cells widespread

Antiretroviral therapy is not a cure for HIV, but the treatment slows disease progression and may strengthen the immune system.

People should never forget that HIV/AIDS is more than a physical ailment; it affects the whole per- son, emotional and physical. Often our treatments fo- cus on the physical only but the emotional needs ad- dressed as well.

 

Vocabulary

HIV (human immunodeficiency virus)

AIDS (Acquired immune deficiency syndrome)

2. Change the Russian words into the English us- ing the correct forms. Use proper articles if necessary.

1) Грудное вскармливание is very important for babies.

2) Вич-частицы may be found in кровоток.

3) Many viruses can распространяться very quickly.

4) Everybody knows Dr. House`s странности.

5) This virus can be transmitted от матери мла- денца.

6) Our clinic специализируется on HIV terapy.

7) Эритроциты plays a great role in the blood

antiretroviral therapy attach (v)

blood transfusion bloodstream breastfeeding clustering

cure

diagnose (v) exclusively fluid

immune system infection

infect (v) inject (v)

circle.

8) This лечение wasn`t very effective.

9) Антиретровирусная терапия can slow the HIV virus speading.

3. Translate the following sentences paying at- tention to the words in italic.

1) Требуется обслуживающий персонал в центр по переливанию крови.

2) Хирург обработал края раны антисептиком, чтобы избежать попадания инфекции в ткани.

3) Еще в средние века доктора научились го- товить вакцины путем разделения антигенов на отдельные белковые частицы.

4) Если вы хотите полностью вылечить бо- лезнь, а не просто снять ее симптомы, необходимо пройти полный курс лечения.

5) Улучшение методов изучения рака помо- жет врачам диагностировать патологию на более ранних этапах.

6) Высокая активность иммунной системы со- всем не означает гарантию абсолютного снижения риска заболеваний.

7) Переливание крови сейчас стало вполне обычным и распространенным явлением.

8) Чем сильнее подавлена иммунная система, тем больше организм подвержен риску заболева- ния синдромом иммунодефицита человека.

9) Когда правительство осознало, насколько велик риск возникновения эпидемии, оно начало вести политику укрепления здоровья населения и увеличило пропаганду здорового образа жизни. Но в нашем обществе это не привело к значительным результатам.

4. Answer the following questions according to the sense of the text.

1) What is AIDS?

2) What is HIV?

3) Is there any difference between them? How are they similar?

4) What are the ways of transition of the virus from one human to another? Do you know any other variants?

5) How does the virus affect the immune sys- tem, the body?

6) Who was the first person with AIDS symp- toms?

7) Are there any borders for the infection?

8) What are the ways of treatment? Can AIDS be cured?

9) How does antiretroviral therapy work?

10) Is this disease only physical?

 

5. Find the propriet definitions to the following words.

1) HIV

2) AIDS

3) Immune system

4) Infection

5) Symptom

6) Antiretroviral therapy

 

a) detrimental colonization of a host organism by a foreign species;

b) manifestation of a disease, indicating the nature

of the disease, which is noticed by the patient;

c) the virus that causes acquired immune defi- ciency syndrome;

d) medications for the treatment of infection by retroviruses, primarily HIV;

e) the set of cells, and their activity against anti- gens, or infectious agents, that comprise the body's de- fense system against disease;

f)a set of symptoms and infections resulting from the damage to the human immune system caused by the human immunodeficiency virus.

 

6. Read the text again and express the idea of each paragraph in questions..

7. Retell the texts from the point of view of:

·a man having acquired immune deficiency syn- drome

·a doctor dealing with these diseases

·a girl whose boyfriend is ill.

 

8. EPIDEM~ / VIRU~: Look in the dictionary to find words beginning with each of these prefix-like forms. Write them down. Make your own sentences with them.

9. Tenses revision. Choose the correct tense.

1. Мой друг читает статью с тех пор, как он пришел из университета. 2. Она уже вернулась с конференции. 3. Вчера в десять часов вечера я

проводил исследование по электрофорезу. 4. Я переведу все статьи к десяти часам. 5. Я жила в Санкт-Петербурге, прежде чем переехать в Моск- ву. 6. До нашего приезда два дня шел сильный снег. 7. Студенты обсудят этот вопрос, до того как вы придете. 8. К концу этого месяца я буду жить в Санкт-Петербурге уже пять лет. 9. Мы уже два го- да живем в новой квартире. 10. Завтра в пять часов я буду делать анализ крови. 11. Он пересек улицу и пошел по направлению к парку. 12. Он проспал всю дорогу, поэтому он чувствовал себя бодрым и отдохнувшим, когда он приехал. 13. Мой брат только что вернулся из Америки. – Здорово, мы пригласим его на нашу вечеринку. 14. Наш само- лёт улетит в 14.00. 15. Когда я вошел, они сидели за столом. Родители смотрели телевизор, Кэйт вя- зала, остальные читали.

 

10. Tenses revision. Choose the correct variant.

1) Where is your luggage? — I (to leave) it at the sta- tion.

a) have left b) leftc) had left

2) The train (to arrive) at 5 o'clock tomorrow.

a) will arrive b) arrive c) arrives

3) If I (to have) time, I'll go with you

a) will have b) has c) have

4) Mike (to write) a letter at the moment

a) writes b) wrote c) is writing

5) I (to live) in London 5 years ago

a) had lived b) has lived c) lived

6) My mother (to watch) TV at 5 o'clock yesterday

a) watched b) was watching c) has watched

7) Mary (to do) all her homework by 5 o'clock yester- day

a) had done b) did c) has done

8) I (not to go) to school tomorrow

a) will not go b) don't go c) didn't go

9) We (to play) football at 7 o'clock tomorrow

a) will play b) will be playing c) will playing

10) My parents (to live) together since 1972.

a) have lived b) live c) are living

 

11. Try to complete the following abbreviations and provide a definition for each one (you may need a dictionary):

· A _ q _ _ _ _ d Im _ _ n _ D _ f _ _ _ _ _ _ y Sy _ d _ _ _ _

· H _ m _ _n I _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ y

· V _ r _ s

· W _ _ _ d H _ _ l _ _ O _ _ _ _ _ z _ _ _ _ n

· R _ p r _ d _ _ _ _ v _ H _ _ _ t h

· R_dR_bb_n

12. Predict whether the following statements are true or false:

1) AIDS is now on the decrease. T / F

2) AIDS is accelerating. T / F

3) AIDS has now been a major world health problem for 23 years. T / F

4) North America is the world’s worst hit region.

T / F

5) China has experienced an explosion in AIDS cases. T / F

6) It’s easier for a woman to contract AIDS than a man. T / F

 

13. Read the text and entitle it.

On November 24, 2004 the United Nations warned that the world was facing a “unique develop- ment challenge” with acceleration in the spread of AIDS. New data revealed there are nearly 40 million HIV sufferers worldwide. Of these 3 million will die of AIDS this year, a record toll in the 23-year history of the killer virus.

The report says Sub-Saharan Africa remains by far the worst-affected region in the world. In South Africa 5.3 million people are infected, with “no sign yet of a decline in the epidemic.” India has the second largest number of HIV sufferers in the world (5.1 mil- lion), while East Asia has seen a 56 percent increase in HIV cases, mainly attributable to an explosive rise in China. Women now constitute over half of all new cases contracting HIV/AIDS due to poor sexual edu- cation, the sex trade, unprotected sexual intercourse, and a greater natural susceptibility to contract the vi-

rus than men.

However, if you are diagnosed with HIV, your physical health is not the only issue you have to deal with. Along with the physical illness are mental health conditions that may come up. Mental health refers to the overall

well-being of a person, including a person's mood, emotions, and behavior.

HIV/AIDS can have a major impact on many parts of human life. People with HIV and those close to them are subject to many things that may affect their mental health.

Many people are surprised when they learn that they have been diagnosed with HIV. Some people feel overwhelmed by the changes that they will need to make in their lives. It is normal to have strong reac- tions when you find out you are HIV positive, includ- ing feelings such as fear, anger, and a sense of being overwhelmed. Often people feel helpless, sad, and anxious about the illness.

Although the society doesn’t forget people af- fected with this devastating disease. The red ribbon, a ribbon colored red, is the symbol of solidarity of peo- ple living with HIV/AIDS.

The Red Ribbon Project was created by the New York artists in 1991. The artists wished to create a visual symbol to demonstrate compassion for people living with AIDS and their caregivers. The color red was chosen for it as the connection to blood and the idea of passion - not only anger, but love, like a valen-

tine. First worn publicly by Jeremy Irons at the 1991 Tony Awards, the ribbon soon became renowned as an international symbol of AIDS awareness, becoming a politically correct fashion accessory on the lapels of celebrities. The Red Ribbon continues to be a power- ful force in the fight to increase public awareness of HIV/AIDS and in the lobbying efforts to increase funding for AIDS services and research.

 

14. Pairs/Groups write down questions based on the article. Ask them your partner.

15Use a dictionary to build up more associations

/ collocations of the words: compassion, red ribbon.

16. Give a short talk on:

· The present-day situation in spreading of AIDS.

· Mental health conditions of an infected person.

· Red Ribbon project history.

 

17. Write a letter to the President of the Russian Federation explaining your concerns for AIDS victims and explaining what you feel the leader of the free world should do.

18. Translate this text into Russian using the words from the topic you studied.

Продолжительность жизни ВИЧ- инфицированных пациентов со временем может

изменяться по двум причинам: постоянно разраба- тываются новые лекарственные средства и методы лечения, а ВИЧ, в свою очередь, вырабатывает ус- тойчивость к лекарствам. В отсутствие антиретро- вирусной терапии смерть пациента наступает в те- чение одного года с момента постановки диагноза СПИД. Считается, что ВИЧ-инфицированный, по- лучающий терапию, может прожить несколько де- сятилетий без развития СПИД. Однако стоимость лечения может составлять от 385 до 619 тысяч долларов США. Значительное влияние на качест- во и продолжительность жизни оказывают побоч- ные эффекты от приема лекарственных препара- тов. Особенности развития ВИЧ-инфекции зависят от многих факторов, в том числе: от количества CD4 лимфоцитов и числа копий вирусной РНК на момент начала лечения, возраста пациента, уровня доступной медицинской помощи, приверженности больного лечению и появления резистентных штаммов вируса.

Большинство пациентов умирают от оппорту- нистических инфекций или опухолей, связанных с нарушением работы иммунной системы. Клиниче- ские симптомы значительно отличаются между пациентами и зависят от многих факторов, среди которых: восприимчивость организма хозяина к инфекции, иммунный статус пациента, качество оказываемой медицинской помощи, сопутствую- щие инфекции, а также штамм вируса, которым инфицирован пациент.

19. Role-play dialogue.

You came to the blood transfusion center. You are going to donate blood. Ask the doctor about the meas- ures they take to prevent everybody to catch HIV. Your goal is to be as sure as possible in your safety. The doctor’s aim is to make you sure that only in their center they take maximum care about donators.

 

20. Write a composition/ presentation.

You are the doctor sent to some high school to tell students about the measures to prevent catching of HIV. Prepare your speech to tell them as much as pos- sible.

Unit13 Microbiology

Say in your words what microbiology is.

How many areas of microbiology do you know?

What is the main sub- ject of microbiological re- search?

1) Read this text.

The fantastic world

Microbiology is the study of microorganisms, which are microscopic and unicellular organisms. This includes eukaryotes such as fungi and protists, and prokaryotes. Viruses, though not classed as living or- ganisms, are also studied. Microbiology typically in- cludes the study of the immune system, or Immunology. And immune systems obviously interact with pathogenic microbes.

Microbiology includes virology, mycology, parasitology, bacteriology and other branches. Micro- biological procedures usually must be aseptic, and use a variety of tools such as light microscopes with a combination of stains and dyes, agar plates in petri dishes, biochemical test and running tests against par-

ticular growth conditions.

Microbiology is researched actively. Many mi- crobes are responsible for beneficial processes such as industrial fermentation, antibiotic production and oth- ers. Bacteria can be used for the industrial production of amino acids. Corynebacteriumglutamicum is one of the most important bacterial species with an annual production of more than two million tons of amino ac- ids.

A variety of biopolymers, such as polysaccharides, polyesters, and polyamides, are pro- duced by microorganisms. Microorganisms are used for the biotechnological production of biopolymers with tailored properties suitable for high-value medi- cal application such as tissue engineering and drug de- livery.

Microorganisms are beneficial for microbial bio- degradation of domestic, agricultural and industrial wastes. The ability of each microorganism to degrade toxic waste depends on the nature of each contaminant.

There are also various claims concerning the con- tributions to human and animal health by consuming probiotics (bacteria potentially beneficial to the diges- tive system) and/or prebiotics (substances consumed to promote the growth of probiotic microorganisms). Recent research has suggested that microorganisms could be useful in the treatment of cancer.

 

 

agar plate amino acids antibiotic biochemical test biodegradation biopolymers class (v) contaminant degrade (v) depend on (v) drug delivery dye

enzymes eukaryotes growth conditions include (v)

Vocabulary

interact (v)

light microscope microbial microorganism pathogenic

petri dish prebiotics probiotics prokaryotes protists running test stain

tissue engineering toxic waste

virus

стандартами.

6) Токсичные отходы можно разбить на не- сколько групп: мышьяксодержащие неорганиче- ские твердые отходы; ртутьсодержащие отходы и др.

7) Биохимические тесты применяются для скрининга – выявления болезни на доклинической стадии.

8) У эукариот имеется нуклеотидный состав отдельных последовательностей ДНК.

9) Штамм – экочистая культура первого вида, у которого одинаковые морфологические и физио- логические особенности.

10) Химическое разрушение материалов под действием факторов окружающей среды является биоразлагаемостью.

 

3. Fill in the gaps in these sentences:

1) Microbiology is the study of, which

2. Translate these sentences.

1) Микроорганизмы сложно увидеть невоо- ружённым глазом (naked eye).

2) Вирус несет в себе наследственную инфор- мацию.

3) Инфекция – сложный биологический про- цесс, возникающий в результате проникновения патогенных микробов в организм и нарушения по- стоянства его внутренней среды.

4) Прокариоты используются в медицине.

5) Эксплуатационные испытания приборов производятся в соответствии с государственными

are microscopic and unicellular organisms.

2) Viruses, though not classed as, are also studied.

3) Many microbes are responsible for

such as industrial fermentation, antibiotic production and others.

4) are beneficial for microbial biodeg- radation of domestic, agricultural and industrial wastes.

5) Recent research has suggested that microor- ganisms could be useful in theof cancer.

6) Microorganisms are used for the

of biopolymers with tailored properties suitable for high-value medical application.

 

4. Give the full answers to these questions:

1) What is microbiology?

2) Is microbiology connected with immunol- ogy? How?

3) Which branches of microbiology do you know?

4) Where are microbes used?

5) What do you know about Corynebacterium- glutamicum?

6) What is produced by microorganisms?

7) What is probiotic? What is prebiotic? What is the difference between them?

8) How can we biodegrade different wastes?

9) Could microorganisms be useful in the treat- ment of cancer?

 

5. Read the text attentively again and say which statements are true to the fact or false.

a) Microbiology is the study of microorganisms.

b) Microbiology typically includes the study of the immune system.

c) A virologist is a specialist in microbiology.

d) Microbiology is researched passively.

e) Bacteria can be used for the industrial pro- duction of all acids.

f) The ability of each microorganism to degrade toxic waste depends on the nature of each contaminant.

g) Probiotics are the substances consumed to promote the growth of probiotic microorganisms.

 

6. Write a summary of the text in your own words. Add key words in it if necessary.

7. Retell this text using your plan.

8.

eukaryotes small infectious agents that can repli- cate only inside the living cells of or- ganisms viruses biological scientists who study organ- isms so small that, generally, they can only be seen with a microscope. antibiotics organisms whose cells contain com- plex structures enclosed within mem- branes enzymes a class of diseases in which a group of cells display uncontrolled growth mycology the branch of biology concerned with the study of fungi cancer organisms that lack a cell nucleus or any other membrane-bound organ- elles microbiologist proteins that catalyze (i.e., increase or decrease the rates of) chemical reac- tions prokaryotes powerful medicines that fight bacte- rial infections

Find the appropriate definitions to the follow- ing words:

9. Find the worlds from the previous exercise in the following table.

e

p

o

m

g

e

m

j

a

s

g

s

p

u

k

a

r

u

p

i

w

a

h

l

d

o

k

v

i

t

o

r

e

b

c

a

w

z

k

a

m

i

c

r

o

b

i

o

g

i

s

t

r

y

p

a

p

k

h

l

o

k

e

e

u

y

c

c

n

l

a

f

e

r

n

a

n

h

o

o

a

c

i

r

o

g

i

s

r

z

i

t

l

m

e

v

y

r

u

s

p

f

y

l

e

o

y

r

u

o

t

i

c

a

f

m

u

s

g

o

n

z

t

q

a

g

h

j

e

s

r

y

u

t

s

e

d

o

i

n

u

s

o

a

n

t

i

b

i

o

t

i

c

s

l

j

h

o

v

i

r

u

s

e

s

o

c

e

k

10. Spend one minute writing down all of the dif- ferent words you associate with the world ‘microbiol- ogy’. Share your words with your partner/group and talk about them.

11. Look at the words below. Try to recall ex- actly how these were used in the text:

·pathogenic microbes

·beneficial processes

·amino acids

·polyamides

·high-value medical application

·domestic

·contaminant

·the digestive system

·to promote

·treatment

 

12. Remember Passive Voice. Change the sen- tences into Passive wherever it is necessary.

Example: They gave her a clock. She was given a clock.

1) Students are doing a lot of the work. 2) We have already washed the clothes. 3) He expected us to offer him the job. 4) They showed her the easiest way to do it. 5) Lightning struck the old oak. 6) Titian couldn't have painted it as people didn’t wear that style of dress till after his death. 7) Did the idea inter- est you? 8) The lawyer gave him the details of his un- cle's will. 9) They used to start these engines by hand. Now they start them by electricity. 10) Who wrote it?

11) The Prime Minister opened the new school. 12) We will not admit children under sixteen.

 

13. Translate into English using the Passive Voice.

1) К сожалению, на конференции такие во- просы не затрагивались (touchupon). 2) Кто вам сказал, что соглашение (agreement) подписано? 3) Здесь говорят только на английском. 4) Ей разре- шили заниматься спортом. 5) Посетителей прини- мают каждый день. 6) Бетти не разрешают прихо- дить сюда. 7) В больнице за ним ухаживали плохо.

8) За ним уже послано? — Да, ему позвонили и ве- лели придти в восемь. 9) На нашей улице строят новый кинотеатр. 10) Не говори это, а то (otherwise) над тобой будут смеяться. 11) Мне еще ничего об этом не говорили. 12) Мы поедем завтра за город, если будет дождь? — Да, мы должны ту- да поехать, нас там будут ждать. 13) Это здание было только что построено, когда мы приехали сюда. 14) К вечеру работа была закончена. 15)Когдамывернулись, онирассказалимногоинте- ресныхновостей.

 

14. Read the text about Antonie van Leeuwen- hoek (Антони ванн Левенгук) and other pioneers of microbiology, translate and title it and add the facts you know about these famous scientists.

Antonie van Leeuwen-hoek was the first to ob- serve microorganisms using a microscope. In 1676 he observed bacteria and other microorganisms, using a single-lens microscope of his own design.

The field of bacteriology was founded in the 19th century by Ferdinand Cohn, a botanist who describes several bacte- ria. Cohn was also the first to formulate the taxonomic classification of bacteria and discover spores. Louis Pas- teur and Robert Koch were

contemporaries of Cohn’s and are often considered to be the father of Microbiology and medical microbiol- ogy.

Pasteur is most famous for his experiments de- signed to disprove the theory of spontaneous genera- tion. Pasteur also designed methods for food preserva- tion (pasteurization) and vaccines against several dis- eases such as fowl cholera and rabies. Koch is best known for his contributions to the germ theory of dis- ease, proving that specific diseases were caused by specific pathogenic microorganisms. He developed a series of criteria that have become known as the Koch's postulates. Koch was one of the first scientists to focus on the isolation of bacteria in pure culture re- sulting in his description of several novel bacteria in- cluding Mycobacterium tuberculosis, the causative agent of tuberculosis.

Martinus Beijerinck and Sergei Winogradsky are considered to be the founders of general microbiology. Beijerinck made two major contributions to microbi- ology: the discovery of viruses and the development of enrichment culture techniques. While his work on the Tobacco Mosaic Virus established the basic prin- ciples of virology, it was his development of enrich- ment culturing that had the most immediate impact on microbiology by allowing for the cultivation of a wide range of microbes. Winogradsky was the first to de- velop the concept of chemolithotrophy. He was re- sponsible for the first isolation and description of nitrogen-fixing bacteria.

 

 

15. Speak on the facts you found in the text. What information was new for you?

16. Write down 5 questions based on this text.

17. Fill up the table about the famous scientist. Add there scientists not mentioned in the text.

scientist	Impact in microbiology

18. Choose the scientist whose impact you appre- ciate most and enlarge the information from the text with your own. Tell your report to the class.

19. Translate the text into English. You can use a dictionary if necessary.

Люди издревле имели представление о мик- робиологических процессах, однако не знали о причинах, вызывающих их. Это не мешало делать наблюдения и даже использовать эти процессs в быту. Многие философы делали умозрительные (speculative) заключения о причинах тех или иных явлений. При этом наиболее близко к открытию

микромира еше в 14 веке подошел Фракасторо, предположивший, что инфекции вызывают ма- ленькие тельца, передающиеся при контакте и со- храняющиеся на вещах больного. Однако в то время невозможно было удостовериться в пра- вильности его идей.

 

20. Take one theme and create a presentation to present to the other students:

· Food microbiology

· Environmental microbiology

· Eukaryote

· Bacteria

· Prokaryote

· Virology

· Viruses

· Archaea

· Escherichia coli

 

 

What is a virus?

Unit 14 Virology

A major branch of virology is virus classification. Viruses can be classified according to the host cell they infect: animal viruses, plant viruses, fungal vi- ruses, and bacteriophages (viruses infecting bacteria, which include the most complex viruses). Another

Are you afraid of viruses?

Can people living in the closed spaces without any contacts be protected from viruses?

What do you know about virology?

1. Read this text and translate it.

Virology and viruses

Virology is the study of viruses and virus-like agents: their structure, classification and evolution, their ways to infect and exploit cells for virus repro- duction, the diseases they cause, the techniques to iso- late and culture them, and their use in research and therapy. Virology is often considered as a part of microbiology.

classification uses the geometrical shape of their capsid (often a helix or an icosahedron) or the virus's structure (e.g. presence or absence of a lipidenvelope). Viruses range in size from about 30 nm to about 450 nm, which means that most of them cannot be seen with light microscopes. The shape and structure of vi- ruses has been studied by electron microscopy, NMR spectroscopy, and X-ray crystallography.

A virus is a small infectious agent that can repli- cate only inside the living cells of organisms. Viruses infect all types of organisms, from animals and plants to bacteria. Since the initial discovery of the tobacco mosaic virus in 1898, about 5,000 viruses have been described in detail, although there are millions of dif- ferent types. Viruses are found in almost every ecosystem on Earth.

Virus particles (known as virions) consist of two or three parts: the genetic material made from either DNA or RNA, long molecules that carry genetic in- formation; a protein coat that protects these genes; and in some cases an envelope of lipids that surrounds the protein coat when they are outside a cell. The average virus is about one one-hundredth the size of the aver- age bacterium.

Viruses cause a number of diseases in eukaryo- tes. In humans, smallpox, the common cold, influenza,

herpes, polio, rabies and AIDS are examples of viral diseases.

Viral infections in animals provoke an immune response that usually eliminates the infecting virus. Immune responses can also be produced by vaccines. However, some viruses including those causing AIDS and viral hepatitis evade these immune responses and result in chronic infections. Antibiotics have no effect on viruses, but several antiviral drugs have been de- veloped.

The origins of viruses in the evolutionary history of life are unclear: some may have evolved from plasmids – pieces of DNA that can move between cells – while others may have evolved from bacteria.

The evolution of viruses, which often occurs in concert with the evolution of their hosts, is studied in

evolution evolve (v) exploit (v) genetic material herpes

host cell

immune response infect (v) infectious agent influenza

initial discovery light microscope NMR spectroscopy plasmids

polio

protein coat provoke (v) rabies replicate (v) reproduction smallpox structure technique

tobacco mosaic virus vaccine

viral evolution virology

virus

X- ray crystallography

the field of viral evolution.

While viruses reproduce and evolve, they don't engage in metabolism and depend on a host cell for reproduction. The often-debated question of whether they are alive or not is a matter of definition that does not affect the biological reality of viruses.

 

Vocabulary

2. Give Russian equivalents for the following words:

Virus-like agents, is often considered as, a major branch, can be classified according to, range in size from about …. nm to about….nm, all types of organ- isms, describe in detail, consist of, carry genetic in- formation, the average virus, can be produced by, have no effect on, the evolution of viruses, in the field of viral evolution, depend on.

AIDS [eidz]

antibiotics antiviral drugs bacteria bacteriophage capsid

classification

common cold electron microscopy eliminate (v) engage (v) eukaryotes

 

3. Translate the following sentences from Rus- sian into English using the words from vocabulary.

1) СПИД — это стадия ВИЧ-инфекции, при которой развиваются бактериальные, грибковые,

вирусные, протозойные инфекции (оппортунисти- ческие инфекции) и неинфекционные заболева- ния.

2) Воспаление — одна из наиболее ран- них реакций иммунной системы на инфекцию.

3) Ученые создали вакцину от опасного ме- нингита B.

4) Уже много лет не было эпидемий оспы.

5) Полиомиелит –это острое инфекционное за- болевание, поражающее центральную нервную систему.

6) Человеческий рино-вирус (HRV) ответст- венен за 30 – 50 % случаев общей простуды.

7) Световые микроскопы могут увеличивать объект в 1500 раз, а электронные – в 20 000 раз.

8) Вирус тотачной мозаики передается меха- ническим путем от больного растения к здоровому или с семенами.

9) Традиционный метод ЯМР-спектроскопии (ядерной магнитно-резонансной) имен множество недостатков.

4. Fill in the gaps in these sentences:

1) Virology is often considered as a part of.

2) Viruses can be classified according to

they infect.

3) Another classification uses the geometrical shape of theiror the virus's structure.

4) A virus is a smallthat can replicate only inside the living cells of organisms.

5) Viruses are found in almost everyon

Earth.

6) Viruses cause a number of diseases in

.

7) Viral infections in animals provoke

that usually eliminates the infecting virus.

8) The evolution of viruses, which often occurs in concert with the evolution of their hosts, is studied in the field of.

9) While virusesand, they don't en- gage in metabolism and depend on a host cell for re- production.

 

5. Remember how the fragments were used, and complete the sentence from today's article.

1) Virology is the study of viruses and virus-like agents:...

2) Viruses can be classified according to the host cell they infect:...

3) The shape and structure of viruses has been studied by...

4) Since the initial discovery of the tobacco mo- saic virus in 1898, about 5,000 viruses have been de- scribed in detail, although...

5) Viral infections in animals provoke an immune response that...

6) Antibiotics have no effect on viruses, but …

7) The often-debated question of whether they are alive or not is a matter of definition that...

 

 

6. Find the appropriate definitions to the follow-

ing words:

ready.

2) Tom said that it(take) him an hour to get to the station.

3) She asked them if they(play) tennis in the afternoon.

4)

AIDS a small infectious agent that can rep- licate only inside the living cells of organisms Influenza a compound or substance that kills or slows down the growth of bacteria Virus an infectious disease caused by RNA viruses of the family Orthomyxoviridae, that af- fects birds and mammals Eukaryote a living cell in which a virus repro- duces Host cell a disease of the human immune sys- temcaused by the human immunode- ficiency virus (HIV) Antibacterial an organism whose cells contain complex structures enclosed within membranes

Peter and John told me they Kremlin the day before yesterday.

(go) to the

5) Mother said she Don't bother her.

(have) a bad headache.

6) Dorothy asked Margaret if she(be) going to buy a new dress in the nearest future.

7) They told us they Tretyakovskaya gallery next Sunday.

(visit) the

8) Jack said that he already letter.

(write) the

9) They asked if the work morrow.

(finish) by to-

 

 

 

7. Make 10 questions covering the gist of the text.

8. Make a plan of the text. Add key words in it if necessary.

9. Retell this text using your plan.

10. Remind sequence of tenses and Indirect speech. Insert the necessary form of verbs.

1) They noticed they(fly) for three hours al-

11. Translate the following sentences.

1) Я знал, что он болен. 2) Я думал, что вы уе- хали из Англии. 3) Я думал, что ты его друг. 4) Салли сказала, что не любит шоколад. 5) Он ска- зал, что они смотрят телевизор. 6) Джек удостове- рил, что сам отправит письмо. 7) Она сказала, что бывала в Лондоне. 8) Он сказал мне, что потерял книгу. 9) Диктор объявила, что самолет прибыл в аэропорт. 10)Oн знал, что металлы проводят элек- тричество. 11) Мы знали, что они работали в саду с самого утра. 12) Я думал, что ты пойдешь в шко- лу. 13) Я знал, что вы поймете меня. 14) Анна ска- зала, что она закончит упражнения к 7 часам. 15) Я

знал, что он говорил ей, что он пишет пьесу. 16)Галилей доказал, что Земля вращается вокруг Солнца.

 

12. Read the text.

The history of vaccination

A very early form of vaccination known as variolation was developed several thousand years ago in China. It involved the application of materials from smallpox sufferers in order to immunize others. In 1796 Edward Jenner developed a safe method, using cowpox to successfully immunize a young boy against smallpox, and this practice was widely adopted. Vac- cinations against other viral diseases followed, includ- ing the successful rabies vaccination by Louis Pasteur in 1886. The nature of viruses however was not clear to these researchers.

In 1892 Dimitri Ivanovski showed that a disease of tobacco plants, tobacco mosaic disease, could be transmitted by extracts that were passed through filters fine enough to exclude even the smallest known bacte- ria.

In 1903 it was suggested for the first time that transduction by viruses might cause cancer. Such an oncovirus in chickens was described by Francis Pey- ton Rous in 1911; it was later called Rous sarcoma vi- rus 1 and understood to be a retrovirus. Several other cancer-causing retroviruses have since been described.

While plant viruses and bacteriophages can be grown comparatively easily, animal viruses normally require a living host animal, which complicates their study immensely. In 1931 it was shown that influenza virus could be grown in fertilized chicken eggs, a method that is still used today to produce vaccines. In 1937, Max Theiler managed to grow the yellow fever virus in chicken eggs and produced a vaccine from an attenuated virus strain; this vaccine saved millions of lives and is still being used today.

The first virus that could be crystalized and whose structure could therefore be elucidated in detail

was tobacco mosaic virus (TMV), the virus that had been studied ear- lier by Ivanovski and Beijerink. In 1935, Wendell Stanley achieved its crystallization for electron micros- copy and showed that it remains active even after crystallization.

Clear X-ray diffraction pictures of the crystallized vi- rus were obtained by Bernal and Fankuchen in 1941.

In 1975 the functioning of oncoviruses was clari- fied considerably. Until that time, it was thought that these viruses carried certain genes called oncogenes which, when inserted into the host's genome, would cause cancer.

A worldwide vaccination campaign led by the UN World Health Organization resulted in the eradi- cation of smallpox in 1979.

13. Make 15 sentences covering the whole text.

14. Draw a line of history and point all virolo- gists on it.

E. Jenner 1796

15. Translate the sentences into English using the words you learned.

1) Человек на протяжении всей жизни подвер- гается опасности заразиться и заболеть какой-либо вирусной инфекцией.

2) Размножаясь, вирусы истощают клеточные ресурсы, глубоко нарушают обмен веществ, и, в конечном счёте, являются причиной гибели кле- ток.

3) По своему строению и свойствам вирусы занимают промежуточное место между сложней- шими химическими веществами (полимерами, макромолекулами) и простейшими организмами (бактериями).

4) Долгое время полагали, что вирусы вызы- вают острые массовые заболевания. К настоящему времени накоплено много доказательств того, что вирусы являются причиной и различных хрониче- ских болезней, длящихся годами и даже десятиле- тиями.

5) Молекула РНК вируса табачной мозайки заключена в белковый капсид, состоящий из 2130

идентичных полипептидных субъединиц.

6) Современная классификация вирусов осно- вана на виде и формы их нуклеиновой кислоты.

 

16. Do you know what retrovirus is? Can you de- scribe the mechanism of its activity? Why can this vi- rus be very dangerous for our cells? What are the typical diseases caused by retrovirus? Make a poster / scheme and explain to the class how retrovirus works.

17. Translate the text about retrovirus.