Problems in the clarity of expression and with English language proficiency

Being able to write and discuss in English is a fundamental skill required to write a research proposal and discuss this during a potential interview for a PhD space. UK Universities have very specific English language requirements for PhD entry, for example see the University of Leicester requirements. If your English levels are not sufficient, you may want to consider working with the English Language Teaching Unit who work with students and applicants at the University of Leicester to develop English language and broader study skills.

Even native English speakers may need to reconsider their clarity of expression for the purpose of a PhD. But we do of course recognise that your ability to discuss in English will improve over the course of your PhD and that this will be of strong quality by the time you might take your viva voce examination.

Overcoming potential PhD problems

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Think about the potential problems you may encounter in writing your PhD proposal and how you may overcome these. These may include some of the issues mentioned in the previous step, or could be others you can think of.

 

Make a basic list of perhaps FIVE needs that you can already think about – for example:

 

Where will your get information from?

How can you find a core text to show the ‘state of play’ in your proposed field?

Will there be a need to travel to other institutions or archives to plan out the topic?

Who might you approach for references?

Then alongside these write down what possible solutions/answers exist for these needs.

 

Reflective journal

As well as discussing issues here, we’d also recommend recording them in a diary or journal as suggested in Step 1.3.

 

Comments

 

 

Angela Windsor

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12 SEP

* Personal professional development is one problem. I am interested in a particular type of methodology, which I need further training in. This will require travel.

* Narrowing down the question

* keeping up to date with the latest research

* managing employment and study

* balancing study and family

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Khaoula EL HAMDI

Khaoula EL HAMDI

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12 SEP

I think that I can get the information from many resources tangible meaning books in libraries and intangible on internet resources.

Yes, I may travel to other cities looking for bibliography. However, I m still confused about the scoop to focus on in my field and what could be the creative side of it, the additional value.?

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CK

Chiara Keune

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11 SEP

As stated in the information even native English speakers can have difficulty in expressing themselves. SO right now I know what it is I would like to research, I have an idea on the methodology, but actually writing out the question is taxing on my brain.

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SO

siobhan o'donnell

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11 SEP

This is so true. These practical issues can hamstring you. Clear thinking and balancing exploring what you find you end up doing (after investigating what you think you might be doing) with not wandering off.... are important.

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Getrude Lesa

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11 SEP

To come up with a research question that is concise and acceptable to the supervisor

-The type of methodology relevant to my particular topic for the desired outcome

-Whether information will readily be accessible

-What critical contribution the research will make

-Will the recomendations be impactful to society?

 

I can overcome this by positive thinkig and by looking for necessary help from those who can help me find answers.

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Rosana Calderón

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10 SEP

The five needs I think I will require to write a PhD proposal are:

- I need information, but I have access to a very specialized library in museology

- My daily experience in the field of museums can help me to establish a "state of playe" in my proposed field

- I need to travel to some of the 162 museums my institution has

- I can aproach to some of the important researchers in the museology field in Mexico, they can help me for my PhD proposal

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Sunday Sinyinza

Sunday Sinyinza

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08 SEP

How do I come up with a clear and concise topic which will convey my good ideas?

What research methods would be suited for my project...quantitative or qualitative or mixed method?

What about the sources? Primary or secondary? What would be most relevant?

What new knowledge will come out of my findings?

Will my recommendations be deemed as acceptable and objective enough or will it be seen as subjective and inadequate?

 

In the previous sections, a number of problems have been discussed that you may face when aiming to undertake a PhD. Whilst these are very real issues, there are a number of things you can do to try and counter or avoid them:

 

1) Outdated or little knowledge in the field of research

The solution here is to read, read, read! It helps if you have access to an academic library which can give you access to books and, often more importantly, relevant journals that will allow you to read the most up-to-date materials.

 

2) Practical research problems that are often defined by the applicant’s employer or government

This can be tricky, especially if you are dependent on the employer or government for funding. If this is the case, it is important to be clear from the start: funders will not be able to determine the content of your thesis, even if you try to accommodate their interests and requirements. Discussion with practitioners or policy bodies can be very useful to develop a research idea but this needs to be carefully balanced with academic expectations.

 

3) No research or methods training

If your previous study and experience is in a different field to the one you have chosen for your PhD, it may be useful (or you may even be asked) to undertake a relevant Masters degree. Alternatively, a Masters in Research Methods (or similar degree) will provide you with a very good foundation for further study.

 

4) Suggesting that you know what your research will reveal, wanting to ‘prove’ a point

This should, in theory, be easy to avoid in that it is ‘merely’ a case of checking that there are no such attempts to prove your point in your proposal. However, we all tend to have preconceptions and don’t necessarily notice when we are drawing on such preconceived ideas. This is why it is useful to discuss your ideas with others, ideally people who are familiar with your field of study. It is good practice to have at least a few such people read your proposal before you submit it.

 

5) Lack of understanding what a UK PhD is

This course should help you develop your understanding but it is also worth talking to current PhD students to hear about their experiences. This course includes accounts from current PhD students and ideally, you can also find somebody in the department you are intending to apply to who is studying something similar to your proposed research. The Vitae website also has online blogs where you can read about PhD students’ experiences.

 

6) Problems in the clarity of expression and with English language proficiency

It is likely that any aspiring or new PhD student will need to develop their expression and language proficiency to adjust to the academic norms and expectations in their particular field. This will require considerable work if English is not your first (or a main) language and passing the required language test is, in itself, not enough. The more you can read, listen (e.g. look for podcasts or YouTube clips by key authors in your field) and talk in English and about your research topic, the better.

 

© University of Leicester

Building a community

24 comments

As the previous steps have covered, you may face many issues when working towards a PhD. It can be helpful to begin to build a community of practice to provide support, and this course is providing a taste of this by giving you lots of opportunities to discuss issues and give feedback to others.

 

To help you to get to know each other, we would like to create an online noticeboard combining your hopes and fears around embarking on a PhD. Please post a short summary of how you are feeling right now on the Padlet board using the password PhDLeicester. You can then return to this at the end of the course to see if your thoughts have changed. You can do this in whichever way you would like, by posting:

 

a photo summing up your feeling

a short video or audio clip describing your thoughts

a short paragraph of text

one word

If you have not used Padlet before, you may wish to read FutureLearn’s advice on how to contribute to a Padlet wall.

Funding your research

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An important issue with undertaking a PhD may often relate to funding. There are two major financial considerations. PhD students are charged an annual fee by the university to cover the costs of their tuition and support. This is paid direct to the university (not the School or Department). Current course fees for PhD, MPhil, and professional doctorate programmes at the University of Leicester are listed here. Students also need to show that they have sufficient funds to cover the costs of their accommodation, subsistence and general living costs if you are intending to study full-time (on campus) at Leicester. For students from overseas, the UK Visas and Immigration (UKVI) will need to see evidence of funds for both things before granting a study visa.

 

There are a number of possibilities for funded (normally full-time) campus-based study at the University of Leicester (similar funding opportunities are also available at most other UK universities):

 

Studentship from a UK research council (e.g. ESRC, AHRC);

Studentship from EU funding or other national research funding bodies;

Graduate Teaching Assistant or Graduate Research Assistant positions);

University studentships – including ones geared for International Students;

Studentship from another organisation or funding body;

Self-funding.

We will explore these in the next few steps.

Graduate Teaching Assistant or Graduate Research Assistant positions

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An alternative to a studentship is the position of Graduate Teaching Assistant (GTA). This is a job contract rather than a studentship, which normally lasts for four years. The successful applicant is expected to study for a PhD whilst taking on teaching responsibilities at the same time. The amount of time spent teaching and the kinds of teaching activities involved have been carefully considered to ensure that there is adequate time for PhD study. Training in teaching in Higher Education is provided in the first year of the GTA to support the student.

 

The GTA typically provides a higher level of financial support than a studentship. However, all teaching performed by the GTA is covered by their contract – it is not possible to take on additional paid work at University of Leicester. At the University of Leicester, GTAs have long formed an important part of the PhD culture at the School of Business (Economics, Management), but other departments like Criminology, Media and Archaeology may have occasional GTA opportunities advertised.

 

Another alternative is the post of Graduate Research Assistant (GRA). This works in exactly same way as a GTA post, but with formal research responsibilities substituted for teaching responsibilities. This might involve activities such as supporting the research of an academic member of staff or a research team (e.g. gathering literature, writing reviews, conducting research, analysing data) or responsibilities attached to the research infrastructure of the school or department (e.g. assisting with editorial management of a scholarly journal).

 

Clearly, successful candidates for a GRA post will need to demonstrate that they have the requisite skills and aptitudes needed for these kinds of roles. There may also be opportunities to teach for other PhD students but in all cases, training (usually provided by the University) is essential. International studies can only work within the stipulations of their student visa.

 

A current Graduate Teaching Assistant

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Anna Liza Kyprianou joined the University of Leicester as a Graduate Teaching Assistant in 2016. She obtained her law degree from the National and Kapodistrian University of Athens. She had also attended the University of Helsinki for a semester as an Erasmus Student during her bachelor studies.

 

Anna Liza studied her LLM in International Commercial Law at the University of Leicester where she is currently doing her PhD. Her areas of research are in International Commercial Arbitration. She is particularly interested in the theories about arbitration nature and the interaction between courts and the institution of arbitration.

 

In this video she talks about how she applied for a Graduate Teaching Assistant position and what her work involves.

 

0:03Skip to 0 minutes and 3 secondsMy name is Anna Liza Kyprianou. I am in my second year of my PhD in the School of Law at the University of Leicester.

 

0:13Skip to 0 minutes and 13 secondsMy PhD pertains to international commercial arbitration. In particular, my research area is about the relationship between state and international commercial arbitration. I'm particularly interested in the relationship between national laws and national courts and arbitration. And I'm examining the theoretical underpinnings of that relationship. So my research method is doctrinal. So I use theories to investigate my research question. It is not comparative. It is not empirical. A lot of other students at the moment are doing a comparative analysis, which is to compare jurisdictions, compare countries, and so on, or empirical, which requires one to collect data and analyse them and research question via those routes.

 

1:12Skip to 1 minute and 12 secondsI'm using, therefore, mainly theory to analyse and answer my research question, and to investigate the theoretical foundations of international commercial arbitration and its relationship with the state and national laws.

 

1:28Skip to 1 minute and 28 secondsI'm a GTA. GTA stands for a graduate teaching assistant. A graduate teaching assistant is basically a PhD student who got a scholarship, and is considered a member of the staff. A GTA position comes with a waiver for the PhD fees, for the EU or home students, and with reduced fees for international students. In my position as graduate teaching assistant, I am teaching currently contract law tutorials. I teach six hours per week. I have an excellent, excellent module convenor, who is very supportive. In order to apply for a GTA position, you just need to have a masters or equivalent to a masters. And no prior teaching experience is required, although it is beneficial to have.

 

2:24Skip to 2 minutes and 24 secondsI didn't have an official teaching experience before teaching as a GTA here. I'm basically teaching to the undergraduates, the first-year undergraduate students. I'm teaching tutorials, which is a small group of students, maximum nine students. Every two weeks the lesson changes. So every two weeks I'm teaching a new subject. A graduate teaching assistant can sit in the staff meetings, is aware of what is happening in the school, and what are any changes that are going to take place. So that there is something very beneficial also for us when we are teaching. We can inform the students about assessment methods or anything that can be taught from the staff meetings.

 

3:25Skip to 3 minutes and 25 secondsI basically found out about the GTA position from a lecturer at the University of Leicester, while doing my master's degree. After seeing the announcement, I immediately prepared an application. The application it's mainly a proposal of the PhD, of our PhD, which is around 1,500 words. In the proposal, we have to refer our topic, the theoretical. The theoretical background of the research, the research methodology that we are going to use, the research question that we are trying to address and answer. And basically anything that pertains to the PhD that we are applied for.

 

 

© University of Leicester

 

Other universities, governments or employers may fund PhD study. This normally occurs when the funding organisation or body concerned gains some direct benefit, usually in the form of improving qualifications, knowledge and skills of their existing staff. In such cases, there is normally a contractual obligation to return to working at the ‘home’ university, government or the employer once the PhD has been completed.

 

Universities also encourage jointly funded studentships, where part of the funding is provided by an external company or organization, along with funding from the university. Studentships of this type are generally arranged through individual departments. As with fully funded studentships provided by employers, the usual expectation would be that the external partner organization gains benefit through the research conducted, which might well be performed within the organisation. Recently the college has seen a number of ‘Collaborative Doctoral Awards’, such as held by the School of History and Politics, with links with, for examples, the British Library or the Science Museum.

 

Self-funding

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It is certainly also possible to self-fund a PhD. This would involve the student meeting the cost of tuition fees and covering their own living expenses for three years, for full-time study, or for a minimum of five years for study via part-time and distance learning modes. Clearly part-time and distance learning modes make this a more realistic proposition, since the student is able to continue full time employment during the course of their studies. However, the workload and implications of juggling full-time employment and the demands of undertaking a PhD should not be underestimated.

 

Generally, good places to look for funding advertisements include:

 

College of Social Sciences, Arts and Humanities - Studentships and Postgraduate Funding

Postgraduate studentships

findaphd.com

jobs.ac.uk

Horizon 2020: The EU Framework Programme for Research and Innovation

The Times Higher Education Supplement

The Guardian Newspaper

Prospects graduate careers

Discipline specific funding such as:

 

History

It is important to keep in mind that while funding arrangements are essential considerations, admission to a PhD programme is based strictly on academic criteria – i.e. the suitability of the applicant for doctoral studies and the quality and feasibility of the proposed research. Applicants who do not meet these criteria, even if they hold a fully funded studentship, will not be accepted.

Funding your research

52 comments

How far have you thought about funding? Recall, the PhD can be a long-term commitments, perhaps up to 7 years part-time. If non-UK, have you explored local or national support opportunities? Do an initial search on this. Discuss with your fellow learners what you have found so far. You can share links and information to help each other.

 

Reflective journal

Remember to record your findings in your reflective diary if you are keeping one.

 

Where to study and what to apply for

22 comments

Having considered funding arrangements, you need to think at length as to which University is the right place for you to study. While we are of course very keen to have you apply to the University of Leicester, you must also think about what suits you and especially where the best supervisors for you are based. You can see some of the league tables for universities and individual departments here:

 

Top Universities

Times Higher Education

The Guardian

Just as important as the reputation of the University is that of the School or Department in which you intend to study. You should make sure that there is a good ‘fit’ between your own personal interests and aspiration and the research culture of the School. You can do this by looking the specific website for the universities and departments or schools you are interested in. Some of the questions you will want to ask include the following:

 

Can the kind of research I wish to do be supervised by the current staff with the School/Department? Check the staff supervision interests on the website to find this out. Note here that staff will normally also identify ‘areas for possible PhD supervision’ – these lists might help guide your basic ideas!

Does my proposed work fall within the core strengths of the School/Department? Look at the ‘Research’ pages on the website.

How big is the existing PhD community within the School/Department and will there be other students doing similar research or with a background similar to mine? Review the ‘Current PhD students’ pages for this information.

Some PhD students may have previously studied at the same university, either as undergraduates or taught postgraduates (i.e. Masters programmes). This clearly gives these students the advantage of knowing a fair bit about the university and the department in which they want to be based for PhD study. Note that it is possible to apply to other departments than the one in which you have previously studied. Once again, entry to any of the PhD programmes in the University is based on the academic merits of the candidate and their proposal; prior study at the university does not soften these criteria in any way.

 

Some applicants may have studied in the UK at other higher education institutions and may have decided to apply to Leicester or another UK based higher education institution based on the impression of the university they have built up during their studies. Full-time study at the University requires the student to be present on campus for the majority of their studies, so successful applicants will need to relocate to Leicester. Part-time students need to be on campus for doctoral training programmes and supervision meetings. It is usually possible to do this by commuting to Leicester and through regular short visits. By definition, distance learning PhD student study from home, and the training and supervision are delivered remotely, principally through a virtual learning environment such as Blackboard.

 

Most universities have an International Office who are responsible for international strategy, recruitment and student exchanges. Staff from the International Office regularly attend Education and Recruitment Fairs around the world, where they are available to advise on all forms of study, including PhD study. Universities also run Open Days for Postgraduate study. Whilst these are focused on Masters level study, it is usually possible to discuss PhD study at one of these events. Some departments also have information videos about their provision (see for example this video from the School of History at Leicester).

 

The application itself is usually made directly to the university’s Postgraduate Admissions Office and will require a range of documents. Details of what is required will be provided in the final week of this course where we look at how to bring the research proposal together for a PhD application. However, the majority of this course will focus on one particularly important aspect of the application: the research proposal.

 

Activity

Visit the websites of institutions you are interested in to see if you can find the answers to the questions suggested above.

 

Check the staff supervision interests to find out whether the kind of research you wish to do can be supervised by the current staff with the School/Department.

Look at the ‘Research’ pages on the website to see if your proposed work falls within the core strengths of the School/Department.

Review the ‘Current PhD students’ pages to see how big the existing PhD community is and whether there are other students doing similar research or from similar backgrounds.

 

WEEK 2: PROBLEM DEFINITION AND RESEARCH QUESTION

Start date:

Photo of man using laptop

Defining the problem

 

Considering which problem your research will cover, and how this will be defined.

2.1

PROBLEM DEFINITION ARTICLE

2.2

WHAT OUR CURRENT STUDENTS SAY VIDEO (05:34)

Photo of student using computer and reading

Research approaches

 

Approaches to your research problem and the impact your research will have.

2.3

FROM RESEARCH PROBLEM TO RESEARCH GAP - THE DEDUCTIVE APPROACH ARTICLE

2.4

INDUCTIVE APPROACH ARTICLE

2.5

UTILITY OR IMPACT OF YOUR RESEARCH ARTICLE

2.6

YOUR APPROACH TO YOUR RESEARCH PROBLEM ARTICLE

2.7

PLANNING AND REFERENCING TOOLS DISCUSSION

Poster by PhD student Amy Wale: (Ad)Dressing the Late Antique World: Sartorial Systems and Cultural identity in Roman North Africa

Research question

 

Guidance and exercises to help you to write your research question.

2.8

INTRODUCTION TO RESEARCH QUESTIONS ARTICLE

2.9

FESTIVAL OF POSTGRADUATE RESEARCH ARTICLE

2.10

GENERAL ADVICE ARTICLE

2.11

FORMULATING RESEARCH QUESTIONS ARTICLE

2.12

WRITE A RESEARCH QUESTION ARTICLE

2.13

REFLEXIVE REVIEW ARTICLE

Photo of students in cafe

Review of the week

 

A recap of what we've learnt this week.

2.14

REVIEW OF THE WEEK ARTICLE

 

 

Problem definition

31 comments

To develop a research proposal for doctoral study at Leicester or another UK university, it is first of all important to consider which problem area the research you plan to undertake will focus on, and how this problem will be defined.

 

PhD research, like all academic research, is a slow process. You will spend somewhere between 3 to 7 years working on your project (depending on the mode of study) and it will almost certainly end up differently to how you initially envisaged it. As this will therefore be a long-term project and labour, it is critical that you select a topic that is of personal interest, is feasible to conduct and has the potential to deliver strong outcomes. The goal of your proposal will be to present a problem definition that persuades potential supervisors that all of these issues have been addressed.

 

This week will help you to define the problem area and begin to shape your research question. This will form the bulk of your research proposal.

 

The most obvious place to start in defining a problem that is worthy of or suited for research is with your own interests. These can relate to your previous academic experiences:

 

Which particular aspects of your previous studies (e.g. at Masters level, perhaps in a module or in your own dissertation) interested you most?

What topics did you find fascinating?

What skills did you enjoy developing?

In which tasks did you excel?

None of these things should be a goal in themselves. A PhD always involves considerable personal and intellectual development – you should not be trying to simply repeat what you have done before at Masters or Undergraduate level. However, reflecting on your academic interests along with strengths and weaknesses is a good starting point. Having a solid background and context of study for your research is essential; coming to a topic or field ‘cold’ is not a good idea!

 

If you are employed and can draw upon past positions held, then you should also consider your professional experiences:

 

What aspects of your current role do you find most interesting?

What problems or issues have you encountered in your professional life, perhaps as an archivist, a corporate financer, a high school teacher or a family lawyer?

What have been some of the current themes or concerns that have arisen in the industries or professions in which you have worked?

You may think in terms of very specific sets of problems or you could consider more general issues. Again, the idea is initially not to think of solutions, but to see if you can articulate what the problem actually is and whether there is a research angle that can be pursued connected to this.

 

Finally, academic research tends to be responsive to current events. Pay careful attention to the issues and debates that are happening at national, regional and international levels. For example, the opening up of a new archive, a new work of fiction, an archaeological find, a re-discovery of a work by a major 17th-century artist, the ongoing global financial crisis, the issues around migration in Europe, election results, or the power of social media are all matters that are ‘of the moment’. However, you need to be careful in how you seek to define a current issue or debate. Try to think of a different way in which your topic might be investigated. One way to do this is to invert the nature of the problem. For example – can we think of the financial crisis as actually not fundamentally economic in nature but a problem of the collapse of national jurisdiction over venture capital?

 

What our current students say

31 comments

In this video, we introduce you to some of our current students undertaking arts, humanities and social science based doctoral research here at the University of Leicester. They talk about their research questions and how they arrived at them, and some of the issues they pondered. We will be hearing from these PhD students again in the coming weeks about different aspects of writing their research proposals.

 

The PhD students are:

 

Ann George, Politics and International Relations

Jamie Banks, History

Precious Akponah, Management

Hannah Ditchfield, Media and Communication

Jie Deng, Modern Languages

 

From research problem to research gap - the deductive approach

31 comments

All research builds on existing academic knowledge, in the form of theories and studies. It also builds on common sense – what it is we take for granted about the world around us.

 

Some research is cumulative, seeking to slowly advance knowledge by adding in new findings to existing theories. Sometimes this means exploring potential problems only to discover that they are actually ‘dead-ends’. Closing down these dead-ends is as much a contribution to knowledge as opening up new problems (although it can be a little less exciting). Many of the natural sciences, such as molecular biology or particle physics, tend to operate in this way. Problems are generated by existing theories, in the form of potential hypotheses, which are then tested against data. This is what is termed a deductive approach. We start with a clear idea of the problem based on existing knowledge and then find ways to test what it is we think we know.

 

Very occasionally senior academics, who have been developing a theory or an approach over a long period of time, may have some specific research topics in mind for which they want to recruit students. In this case they are likely to advertise this directly as part of a PhD studentship or on their profile on their departmental website. Supervisors may also sometimes (but rarely) be in receipt of a research grant that pays for a PhD student to conduct some very specific work that can serve as the basis for their PhD.

 

If you choose to apply for a PhD opportunity that is advertised as being in a very specific topic area, you must ensure that this is a project you actually want to do. There will nearly always be some scope for shaping the focus of the project, but for the most part what you will do is determined by the project details that were initially advertised. In these cases, the supervisor will have very clear expectations about what the project will deliver, and you should understand these entirely before beginning the project. There may also be issues around the intellectual ownership of the data and analysis. Although you may have done the majority of the work collecting and analysing the data, if your supervisor is the lead researcher on the project, they may assert their right to publish the work under their own name. Again, you need to be very clear about what the arrangements will be around publication before you begin work on the project.

 

For standard PhD proposals that are developed by potential PhD students, defining a research proposal deductively means starting from the existing literature. Essentially, you need to identify a body of work that addresses a particular problem, or that has developed a specific theoretical approach. You should then ask of that literature questions like the following:

 

What is missing from existing studies?

What problems have yet to be addressed by the current approach?

What are the gaps in the existing literature?

As an approach develops, it tends to generate more questions than answers. A good place to look for these questions is towards the end of the discussion section in journal articles, where authors will often suggest how the research could be taken forward. Another strategy is to look at an existing empirical study and consider what would happen if the same study were done on a different population, or if slightly different variables were used. Alternatively, you might ask why an approach has not, as yet, dealt with a particular problem or issue.

 

How can the theoretical approach be tested in a new way?

Can the theory be extended to other kinds of problems than the ones studied already?

What aspects of the theory might be revised or critiqued?

All theories need to be tested against empirical material to be credible. However, it is often surprising just how few data there might be to support particular theories. You might also try to extend the reach of a theory. This would mean applying it to a problem that is it not normally associated with, or using it in a context different to that explored by the majority of studies in the area. Theories also evolve over time and change some of their key terms and propositions. You could thus look to find ways to revise a theory to address current weaknesses, or alternatively take a critical stance against a theory and produce evidence to demonstrate its failings.

 

Questions to ask might be:

 

Are there any controversies or unsettled debates within the literature to which I might contribute?

Are these debates conceptual, technical, methodological or empirical?

What kind of research might provide evidence for one or other side or even ‘the answer’ to the debate?

Controversies in academia typically involve a heated debate between a limited number of researchers around a conceptual, methodological or empirical problem. Often these controversies can rumble on for many years without ever really coming to a conclusion (except when everyone involved either becomes bored or retires!). As a PhD student, you would be unwise to consider attempting to solve a controversy, but it would be perfectly possible to design a study that might offer support one way or another or even propose an alternative approach or direction of study. You should consider carefully what aspects of the controversy are within your ability to address and exactly what kind of ‘evidence’ might be required to make a contribution. And, as we will see, you need also to ensure that you choose the right sort of supervisor to guide such a project.

 

Reflective journal

Evaluating existing literature is a key part of the process of developing your research question and recognising the research context. We will look at reviewing literature in more depth in Week 3 of the course, where we will ask you to put together a draft Literature Review. To help prepare for that, start to answer the questions above in your Reflective Journal based on literature you have read so far.

Inductive approach

24 comments

The questions in the previous step all require that there is already a reasonably discrete body of research that has grown around a particular approach, issue or field to which you can then contribute. But you may choose to begin from the other direction, in other words, from an issue or a problem that you do not think has been sufficiently addressed by the existing literature. The basis of your research would then be around developing an approach, based on existing knowledge, which would enable the problem to be adequately studied.

 

This is an inductive approach. Rather than locate your research in a fully developed approach, you will be concerned with exploring the best way to treat a particular problem.

 

The advantage of taking an inductive approach is that you can start with a problem that you already know something about – such as an issue you have encountered professionally, or one that is specific to the culture in which you work. You may not (yet) be an expert in a particular theory, but you may already be something of an expert on this particular issue because it is one that you have spent some time addressing. Or it may simply be that you are likely to know more about the problem than your potential supervisor. The way forward in taking an inductive approach is to try to describe the problem or issue in a way that indicates how it might be addressed by the current literature. The kinds of questions you might then ask include the following:

 

Who are the major stakeholders in this problem?

What is the nature of their involvement?

In what settings is this problem particularly prevalent?

What is the historical background to its emergence?

Research problems tend to emerge in a particular time and place. They come about because of very specific processes and activities. You should try to identify who is involved, how they are involved and what kinds of things they are doing which either exacerbate or ameliorate the problem. Try to work out the ‘story’ for when this problem first emerged and what led to its appearance. You will probably want to do some informal research, such as consulting news sources, professional publications and the internet. Or perhaps identify some people who you think might have something to say about the problem and talk to them.

 

What sort of a problem is this?

Do the stakeholders appear to have an adequate understanding of the problem?

If they do, why haven’t they been able to solve it?

If they don’t, then what do you think is actually the nature of the problem?

The true nature of a problem is not always obvious. For example, managers often treat ‘people’ problems as though they were ‘technical’ problems – with predictably disastrous results. Your research might seek to demonstrate that the reason the problem is ongoing is because it has not been characterized in the right way, so the existing solutions are doomed to failure. Again, talking to people who are directly involved with the problem is a good start. You should also bear in mind that many problems are multi-dimensional – they have many different components. There may be good reasons why a particular group of stakeholders does not have the ‘big picture’. Your research might attempt to provide this.

 

What happens if this problem is framed in different ways?

What appears to be the ‘best’ framing?

How do I decide what ‘best’ means here?

What kinds of literature does each framing connect to?

There are always several different ways of looking at the same problem. You might experiment with different kinds of theories and concepts – explore what happens when you apply different ideas as ‘lenses’ to look at the problem (and here the ‘problem’ might consist of a set of source material, archive data, fragmentary records, etc). Some theoretical framings will seem to you to be ‘better’ than others. Try to establish what ‘better’ means here. Does it seem to change the nature of the problem? Does it connect it to other, well-established problems? Does it make a solution more likely? Does it help to empower some of the stakeholders? The next step is then to connect the problem directly with an existing body of literature, which will help you to generate your research questions.

 

As you can see from both approaches outlined above, research starts from questions of what we already know (theories, concepts, studies) and what we don’t yet know (the nature of the current problem, the ways we can explore it, the range of possible descriptions, accounts or solutions). Good research is always a mixture of these two modes: namely what we already know and what we don’t yet know. If you can already see the answer to your problem without doing any actual empirical work, then what you are doing is not really research (it is merely confirming your initial opinion). Likewise, if your empirical work is not informed by any previous theories or concepts, then it does not qualify as a contribution to scholarly debate. Good research draws upon what has been done before but it also uncovers new and, ideally, unexpected aspects of the problems it addresses. Ultimately you want to be saying something different (not necessarily wholly new), but based on solid research.

Utility or impact of your research

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The final set of questions you need to ask relate to the utility or ‘impact’ of your work. It may be that what you have in mind for your research concerns a technical problem that will be of use to a relatively small community of fellow scholars or practitioners. At the other end of the spectrum, perhaps you envisage working on a highly applied problem, the solution to which might be of very great interest to a wide number of stakeholders in the professional context, industry, public administration, politics and government, etc.

 

Wherever you fall on this spectrum, you will need to consider the following:

 

Who is the audience for my research?

Which academic communities would be interested in what I am doing?

Can I meet the standards for evidence and debate in that community?

Academic communities are often divided up very clearly along disciplinary lines. This can sometimes mean that different researchers approach similar problems in very different ways without being aware of what one another is doing. Interdisciplinary research that crosses these boundaries is very important, but it is not risk-free. Each community has their own very specific standards around theory and methodology, what counts as a ‘good’ question and the ways it can be investigated. You will always need to start by thinking about the academic community in your ‘home’ department or field, but ought then to consider other communities or disciplines that might potentially be interested.

 

What are the audiences outside the university?

How can I reach these audiences?

What kind of language will I need to speak?

What will they find useful in what I do?

There are a broad range of stakeholders outside of academic life who might be interested in your research. In fact, all research is meant to have some kind of ‘impact’ in the world outside of the university! Indeed, ‘impact’ is very much an important and current term in Universities. You should attempt to identify who these stakeholders are, what their relationship is to the problem you are investigating, and what aspect of the findings you intend to generate might be of interest to them. There will always be a problem of language. Each professional practice has its own way of speaking, which is often impenetrable to outsiders. You will need to translate your work into the language of your stakeholders in order for them to pay attention. You will also need to bear in mind that their interests and goals may differ from yours.

 

Bear in mind that your PhD work must primarily serve the criteria laid down by your university, and secondarily those that external stakeholders put in place. It is worth noting that Research Councils UK (RCUK) make a distinction between ‘impact’ and ‘pathways to impact’. The former term, impact, refers to the substantive social and economic outcomes of research, whereas ‘pathways to impact’ refers to the organizational means by which impact will be pursued. It is worthwhile to think about impact in terms of both the value of the research, and the strategic means by which this will be promoted outside of the university. Securing good relationships with as many stakeholders as possible is the best strategy to generate a pathway to impact.

 

How can I assist in improving practice?

What kinds of change would I like to see brought about?

Who would benefit from these changes (and who might lose out)?

How would I benefit from those changes?

It is very unlikely that you will be able to change a given practice on your own. The best you can hope for is to interest powerful stakeholders to adopt your recommendations. Sometimes this means that stakeholders interpret research towards their own ends, and implement recommendations in ways that do not necessarily follow what we, as researchers, envisaged. It is worth asking right at the start of conducting research, what sort of change would you like to come about, if your research were successful? Change processes can be a zero-sum game – there will be ‘winners’ and ‘losers’ in equal proportion. You need to ask not only who might benefit from your research, if implemented, but moreover who might be negatively affected. Finally, there is your own personal ‘pay-off’ to consider. In the social sciences, beyond straightforward career advancement, rewards are often non-financial or intangible, and come in the form of reputation or media coverage. You might want to ask yourself whether external affirmation through ‘making a difference’ is important to you or not.

 

But don’t feel scared about ‘impact’: some excellent research might make a few ‘ripples’ in the waters of academia rather than create a whole ‘sea-change’. New research on the literary output of a group of French authors in the 18th century may change views among a fairly compact field of scholars and will not rewrite literary scholarship generally. One major point explored by examiners of a PhD is whether there is material in the research thesis of ‘publishable’ nature and that contributes significantly to the field. Bear those needs in mind throughout your studies if you do pursue a doctoral project – your supervisor too will steer you on these aspects.