VI. Urban Construction and Utilities

Городское строительство

 

Текст 1

Acquiring Land for Industrial Construction

 

Recent trends in the real estate market show that increasing numbers of manufacturers are looking to invest in the construction of new production plants throughout Russia.

It is essential that the whole development process should be well planned and professionally executed. The following points are especially important to consider. Sufficient land plots for industrial construction may be difficult to find in the vicinity of city centers and available transport routes. According to zoning regulations, developers can either build production plants on land that is designated for industrial purposes or obtain a permit to use agricultural land. However, the transfer from the agricultural to industrial category may take up to one year. It is forbidden to start construction on agricultural land regardless of any

rights to ownership or unofficial permits.

The developer must familiarize himself with the development plan of the area where the land plot is located in order to confirm that no urban development is planned.

Legal due diligence of the site is absolutely necessary to verify the land title,

especially in light of privatization issues.

During construction, the investor typically has the right to only a short-term lease (1-3-5 years); however, after the title to the property is officially registered, then the investor may sign a long-term lease (for a maximum of 49 years).

 

1. What do recent trends in the real estate market show?

2. What should be well planned and professionally executed?

3. Is it difficult to find sufficient land plots for industrial construction?

4. How much time may the transfer from the agricultural to industrial category take?

5. Why must the developer familiarize himself with the development plan?

6. What is absolutely necessary to verify the land title?

7. Does the investor have the right to any term lease?

 

Текст 2

Allocation of Land for Construction Project

 

Land plots owned by the state or municipalities can be allocated for construction projects under title or lease. Authorities may not refuse to issue land titles to individuals or companies for construction purposes, unless: the land plots are withdrawn from the market; a federal law prohibits land privatization; or the land plots are reserved for state or municipal needs.

Land can be allocated for construction purposes with or without prior consent for the location of the facilities to be constructed.

Prior consent for the location of the facilities to be constructed is required for land plots to be leased out to commercial organizations. Prior consent is normally required for investment in industrial projects in or outside populated areas in cases where no town-planning documentation has been drawn up in relation to such territories and no rules are in effect for land use and development. In such cases, determination of the location of the industrial facilities to be constructed requires thorough analysis of the environmental, architectural, sanitary and other implications of the planned construction.

Municipalities in urban and rural areas are required to notify their inhabitants of possible or forthcoming construction projects. In cases where the location of buildings, structures or facilities affects the common interests of local residents, decisions to proceed with the projects are to be made taking the opinion of the local population into account.

Under the Land Code of the Russian Federation, land may be sold or leased out for construction projects by competitive bidding only, with no requirement for prior consent for the location of the facilities to be constructed. This procedure is used primarily in cities where the executive authorities or municipalities allocate land plots by tender or auction. Each land plot must be properly prepared for sale or lease.

Prior consent is not required either in cases where a construction project is to be located in a city or a rural populated area in accordance with town-planning

documents and rules regarding land use and development.

 

1. How can land plots be allocated?

2. May authorities refuse to issue land titles?

3. When is prior consent for the location of the facilities required?

4. What does determination of the location of the industrial facilities require?

5. Is the opinion of the local population taken into account?

6. In what cases isn't prior consent required?

 

Текст 3

Survey

 

The simplest and most commonly used method of measuring the distance between two points on the ground is called chain surveying. Angles in surveying are measured with special instruments called transit (теодолит). In its simplest form the transit is a telescope mounted above a horizontal circular scale.

Route survey is a survey necessary for the location and construction of transportation or communication lines such as highways railroads, canals, transmission lines and pipe-lines. The preliminary work consists of a topographic survey.

City surveying is the term frequently applied to the operation of laying out lots and to the municipal surveys made in connection with the construction of streets, water supply systems and sewers.

The maps and data produced by surveyors are used by civil engineers in many ways. Before construction begins the exact position of the various parts of the dam, or the track of the railway or road, are fixed on the ground by using normal surveying methods. In choosing the site for a dam, for instance, an engineer can study on a map the courses of all the rivers and streams in the area. By reading the contours he can calculate the amount of water which can be stored by building a dam of a given height in a certain place. In the same way the results of a soil survey clearly marked on a map will give the engineer vital information about the foundations. When deciding the route of a railway or road, the gradients, radii of curves, heights of embankments and depth of cutting can be calculated from data supplied by the surveyor.

Terrestrial photogrammetry or photographic surveying from ground stations had been found to be a useful addition to other methods in mapping of mountainous areas.

 

1. What is the simplest method of measuring the distance between 2 points on the ground?

2. How are angles measured in surveying?

3. What is route survey necessary for?

4. What type of survey is made while constructing streets, water supply systems?

5. What should be done before constructing a dam?

6. How are survey data used in road building?

7. What surveying is useful in mountainous areas?

 

VII. Mechanical Engineering

Строительные и дорожные машины

 

Текст 1

Components of the Automobile

 

The automobile consists of three basic parts: the power plant, the chassis and the body. The power plant or engine is the source of power that makes the car wheels rotate and the car move. It includes the electric, fuel, cooling and lubricating systems.

The chassis consists of a power train and a frame with axles, wheels and springs. The chassis includes the brake system and the steering system as well.

The power train carries the power from the engine to the car wheels. It consists of the clutch, the gear box, the propeller shaft, the rear axle, and the final drive, etc.

The body has a hood, fenders and accessories: a heater, lights, a radio, a windshield wiper, a convertible top raiser and so on. The body is designed to contain and protect not only the engine and other car components, but it provides protection to the occupants from wind, dust, cold, and rain as well.

To guide the car it is necessary to have some means of turning the front wheels, so the car can be pointed in the direction required. The steering wheel in front of the driver is connected by the gears and levels to the front wheels for this purpose. The front wheels are on the pivots so they can be swung to the left or right.

The brakes are necessary to slow or stop the car. They are the most important mechanisms on the car. Upon their proper work the safety and lives of people riding in the car depend. Most braking systems are hydraulic. But many vehicles now use power brakes.

The frame is the structural center of some vehicles. It provides support for engine, body, wheels and power train members. It is usually made of U-shaped sections. These U-shaped sections are carefully shaped and then welded or riveted together. Cross members reinforce the frame and also provide support for the engine and wheels. The frame is extremely rigid and strong. It can withstand the shock blows, vibrations and other strains to which it is put on the road.

The engine is attached to the frame in three or four points. Noise and some vibrations are inherent in engine operation. To prevent this noise the engine is insulated from the frame by some form of a rubber pad at each point of support.

 

1. What does the automobile consist of?

2. What does the power plant include?

3. What does the chassis consist of?

4. The power train carries the power from the engine to the car wheels, doesn’t it?

5. What is the body designed for?

6. What is it necessary to guide the car?

7. Are the brakes the most important mechanisms on the car?

Текст 2

Components of Tractors

 

Nowadays tractors are widely used in agriculture and in industry. In agriculture tractors are used in such jobs as plowing, planting, cultivating, fertilizing, harvesting, transport works, etc.

In different branches of industry tractors are used as road transport tractors hauling heavy loads. They are also used for different building purposes.

Tractors may be agricultural tractors, road transport tractors and special tractors.

Agricultural tractors are subdivided into: the general tractors designed for hauling agricultural machinery; cultivators designed for specific agricultural jobs; tractors for operation on soft boggy ground.

Road transport tractors are equipped with a load carrying platform.

Special tractors are usually equipped with auxiliary devices. Tractors may belong either to wheeled-type tractors or to track-laying type tractors.

The construction of a tractor includes the following main units:

1. Power unit which includes the engine with all auxiliary devices – a radiator, a fan, a starter device, a fuel tank, a pump, etc.

2. Transmission which consists of a clutch, a speed control unit, universal joints, gearing mechanisms, shafts, steering mechanisms, a final drive, axles.

3. Driver which includes driving, supporting and controlling mechanisms.

4. A steering unit.

5. The tractor frame.

6. Working and auxiliary equipment.

Tractor engines have internal combustion engines as the source of power.

Tractor engines requirements differ considerably from the requirements of the automotive engines. Automotive engines are generally unsuitable for tractors.

 

1. Tractors are widely used in agriculture and in industry, aren’t they?

2. What jobs are tractors used in agriculture for?

3. How may all tractors be classified?

4. What groups are agricultural tractors subdivided into?

5. What are road transport tractors equipped with?

6. What are special tractors usually equipped with?

7. What type may tractors belong to?

Текст 3

 

Principal Mechanism of Crawler-Mounted Tractors

 

The various types of tractors in use today have an almost identical transmission system. They consist of four main groups of mechanisms mounted on the main frame. They are:

1. The power unit, including the engine and all its accessories.

2. The power train, comprising the engine clutch, the propeller shaft, the transmission, the center drive, steering clutches with brakes and the final drive. The power train transmits torque from the engine to tractor tracks.

3. The crawler running gear, including the chain, drive sprockets, the idler, truck wheels and support rollers and a suspension. The suspension connects the tractor frame to the running gear.

4. Controls, consisting of the steering clutch, brakes, and mechanisms controlling fuel feed.

In addition, the tractor carries the hood, the cab and fuel tanks.

Tractors are usually steered by friction clutches mounted on the live axle after the center drive. These clutches, known as steering clutches, consist of a number of friction disks.

The weight of the tractor is transmitted to the ground through support rollers which run on the track. They are connected with the tractor frame by a suspension. The suspension damps shocks when the tractor moves on uneven ground.

Disconnecting one of the steering clutches, partly or completely, reduces the speed of rotation of the corresponding sprocket and its track. And the tractor will turn towards the side of the sprocket lagging behind.

Small-radius turns cannot be made by slowing down one sprocket using the steering clutches. Therefore, the tractor controls include a special device for stopping the free track by means of special brakes, which act upon the driven parts of the steering clutches.

A tractor going down a slope is braked and stopped by using the same brakes applied to both tracks simultaneously.

 

1. What is the main feature of the various types of tractors in use today?

2. What do crawler-mounted tractors consist of?

3. What mechanisms does the power unit include?

4. What mechanisms does the power train comprise?

5. What is the function of the power train?

6. What mechanisms does the crawler running gear include?

7. What do controls consist of?

VIII. Building Materials

Строительные материалы

 

Текст 1

The House

 

Man has always been a builder. The kind of house he built depended upon the climate, upon his enemies, and upon the building materials at hand. The first houses in many parts of the world were made of wood, for in those days the greater part of the Earth was covered with forests.

In other regions the most convenient building material was stone. Men began building houses out of stone very long ago. Although they were built without cement, the remains of a few of them still exist.

The ancient Egyptians built very simple houses, by present standards. Having dried the bricks in the sun, they put up four walls, and above these they placed a flat roof. The roof was flat because there was very little rain in Egypt. Although their buildings were simple in construction, the Egyptian art of building was very beautiful.

In ancient Russia architecture flourished for the first time in Kiev Russ. The churches of that time were strong buildings with thick walls and small windows.

Buildings of the 19-th century are characterized by the use of new materials and by a great diversity of architectural styles. From the end of the 18-th century iron and steel became widely used as alternatives to wood.

The 20-th century is notable for widespread use of steel - reinforced concrete. Architecture of the 20-th century is characterized by very high buildings - particularly skyscrapers - and by great diversity of styles which completely differ from those of the past.

 

1. What were the first houses made of?

2. The ancient Egyptians built very complex houses, didn't they?

3. Where did Russian architecture flourish for the first time?

4. What are buildings of the 19-th century characterized by?

5. When did reinforced concrete appear?

6. What is the main peculiarity of the 20-th century buildings?

 

 

Текст 2

Egyptian Pyramids

 

Architecture is the art which makes buildings beautiful to look at as well as useful. There have been many different styles or kinds of architecture in the past and there are many different styles today in different parts of the world.

Houses are built for dwelling; large buildings are constructed for industrial purposes; theatres, museums, public and scientific institutions are built for cultural activities of the people.

Primitive stone structures, huts and tents are the earliest types of human dwellings. The oldest monuments which are met within architecture are the colossal pyramids of Egypt most of which were constructed about 6,000 years ago. The pyramids are large triangular buildings which were placed over the tombs of Egyptian kings. The best known of the pyramids are a group of three built at Giza south of Cairo. The largest of these is 482 feet high. The country was rich in hard and durable stone, but poor in timber and metal, so that the main material used for construction was granite, and this was the reason for the durability of the pyramids. Large blocks of stone were transported over long distances by land and water, and placed into position with the help of the most primitive equipment.

 

1. What are the purposes of different buildings?

2. Primitive stone structures were the earliest types of dwellings, weren’t they?

3. What are the oldest monuments met within architecture?

4. What kind of buildings are pyramids?

5. Was timber or stone the main material used for construction in Egypt?

6. How were large blocks of stone transported and placed?

 

Текст 3

Some Building Professions

 

Builders construct and reconstruct residential and industrial buildings, bridges, schools, museums, theatres, hospitals. They build tunnels, power stations, dams. A lot of people work together to make the house. Civil engineers and architects have a common aim – to create something which will serve the purpose for which it is built.

A man who designs buildings and makes the plans for them is called an architect. He has to think not only of what he wants the building to look like when it is finished, but also what it is to be used for. He must not forget the sort of material to be used in the building. This may be stone, brick, wood or steel and concrete. An architect must know many facts concerning materials, for example what loads different materials may safely carry - so that there will be no danger of his building falling down. He must need some knowledge of sculpture, painting, design, geography, city planning, etc. The structure an architect creates should give us pleasure, a sense of beauty.

Civil engineer specializes in the building of industrial or dwelling construction. He is engaged to prepare the plans and specifications and to supervise the construction of the project. Civil engineer must provide people with all modern conveniences, such as running water, gas, electricity, central heating, while a sanitary engineer protects the quality of water by purifying it.

Builders assemble a house from prefabricated units which are delivered to the construction site. A welder then welds the units to hold them in place. The men of many other building professions take part in building construction. The stonemason builds the foundation. The bricklayer builds the walls and other parts made of bricks. The carpenter erects door and window frames. The plaster makes

walls and ceilings smooth. The slater is employed for putting slates or tiles on the roof. The plumber lays pipes to carry clean water into the house and waste water away to the sewers. The electrician runs electric wires and the glazier puts glass in the window frames.

1. What do builders construct and reconstruct?

2. What aim do civil engineers and architects have?

3. Who is called an architect?

4. An architect must know many facts concerning materials, mustn't he?

5. What are the functions of civil engineer?

6. Who builds the walls?

7. Who is responsible for the water in the house?

 

IX. Heating and Ventilation

Отопление и вентиляция

 

Текст 1

Air Conditioning

 

The term air conditioning has been widely and loosely used, it includes any ventilation system with fan and heater. True air conditioning involves means for warming and humidifying air in winter and for cooling and dehumidifying in summer. Air conditioning is finding an ever widening application in industry. Accurate control of atmospheric conditions is very important for industrial processes. Air conditioning systems vary in complexity and cost. Complex systems are finding their application in air conditioning of a multi-storey office block, factory, cinema or theatre.

For many years air has been introduced into buildings after heating, dehumidifying and in some cases, cooling it. And we have called that process ventilation. In recent years much greater stress has been laid on the treatment of air and we call the process air conditioning. Air conditioning systems are divided into three types - winter, summer and complete. Winter air conditioning includes cleaning, heating, humidifying and circulating of air. It is finding its application in offices, auditoriums, schools and residences. Summer air conditioning includes cleaning, cooling, dehumidifying and circulating of air. The people are using summer air conditioning in stores.

Complete air conditioning involves winter and summer functions. It is used in theatres, large department stores. Each type of air conditioning depends upon the climatic conditions.

Developments of the last twenty years have changed our conception of air conditioning. Air conditioning is required for offices, department stores, hospitals, hotels and dwelling houses. But the techniques of air conditioning have not kept pace with the increasing demand. The cost of an air conditioning system influences the

cost of the building, as it needs the additional height and floor areas to mount this air conditioning system.

Some efforts have been made to reduce the space occupied by air conditioning systems. But they have not been definitive, except some methods that have been used for many years. Air conditioning is rapidly being adopted in passenger ships and automobiles. Car heaters have been employed for some time. But recently new equipment has been designed to maintain car interiors at a comfortable temperature in summer and winter.

 

1. What term includes any ventilation system with fan and heater?

2. Air conditioning systems vary in complexity and cost, don’t they?

3. What has much greater stress been laid on in recent years?

4. Where is air conditioning finding application?

5. What does the cost of an air conditioning system influence?

6. Where is air conditioning being adopted?

7. What has new equipment been designed for?

Текст 2

Systems of Heating

 

The number of different heating systems is almost unlimited. Various systems of heating are being used at the present day. They are: direct, indirect, water heating systems, steam heating systems and so on.

A direct system is that in which the fuel is consumed in the room. It is being used for intermittent heating, or for heating isolated rooms. An indirect system is that in which the fuel is consumed outside the room. In this system the heat is being conveyed to the room by a medium such as steam or hot water. Indirect system is being used for the continuous heating of a number of rooms or large buildings. It begins from one central source and that’s why it is named Central Heating.

Steam heating systems are classified according to the following features: piping arrangement, pressure or vacuum conditions, obtained in operation and method of returning condensate to the boiler. A steam heating system is known as a one-piping and two-pipe system. In one-piping system a single main supplies steam to the heating unit and conveys condensate from it. In two-pipe system each heating unit is being provided with two piping connections. Steam and condensate flow in separate branches. Steam heating systems are classified as high pressure, low pressure (vapour) and vacuum systems. This classification depends on the pressure conditions under which the system is designed to operate. The system is known as a gravity return system. Condensate is returned to the boiler by gravity. All heating units are being elevated above the water line of the boiler.

 

1. What systems of heating are used at the present day?

2. What heating is the direct system used for?

3. What heating is the indirect system used for?

4. How are steam heating systems classified?

5. What do you know about one-piping system?

6. What do you know about two-pipe system?

7. What can you say about gravity return system?

 

Текст 3

Modern Heating and Ventilation

 

Ventilation means the circulation of air without any treatment. Ventilation is used where the cost of air conditioning is not justified. Ventilation may be natural or mechanical. Natural ventilation is due to the action of wind through wall openings and the updraft caused by the difference in temperature between indoors and outdoors. The limiting factors in natural ventilation are usually cold weather conditions and the availability of heat. Buildings with small floor areas are ventilated by natural means. Natural ventilation has the advantage of being cheap to install.

Mechanical or artificial ventilation is used for theatres, factories, large public halls and other buildings with large floor areas. Artificial ventilation may be classified as follows: exhaust ventilation, plenum ventilation and some combination of the above mentioned systems.

Heating and ventilation may be required to provide comfortable conditions for people and for industrial processes. Both are necessary and should be considered together. But the design of each must be treated separately. Heating and ventilation of buildings by electrical methods are finding their application nowadays. These methods have the advantage of being quick in construction. They are suitable for buildings of all sizes and types. Small rooms can be adequately heated with electric fires. Tubular heaters are used for rooms where the temperature must be maintained for long periods. These heaters are usually fixed to the walls near the floor. Not long ago electrically heated panels were developed. On these the heating elements are mounted behind metal panels. The heating of rooms by means of large warmed panels is named panel heating or radiant heating.

Electric heaters play a large part in the air conditioning plants of large buildings. The air enters the building through the ventilation ducts and passes over electric heaters. They raise the temperature of the passing air and give comfort to the people.

 

1. What does term ventilation mean?

2. What can heating and ventilation be required to provide?

3. Must the design of heating and ventilation be treated separately?

4. What methods of heating and ventilation are widespread?

5. What is the advantage of electric methods?

6. What is used to maintain the temperature for long periods?

7. Electric heaters do not play a large part in the air conditioning plants of large buildings, do they?