How shall we classify figures of speech?

Shifts of meanings can be divided into two large groups, namely:

1) there are cases when the disparity of the actual denomination of the referent with the usual, traditional denomination of it can be understood as quantitative, i.e.the referent is simply exaggerated or underestimated;

2) in some cases the disparity between the traditional and actual denominations is qualitative.

Hence, the corresponding figures of speech may be subdivided accordingly into figures of quantity (hyperbole, understatement, litotes) and figures of quality (metonymy, metaphor, irony). Both figures of quantity and figures of quality may be called figures of replacement since they are based on replacement of the habitual name of a thing by its situational substitute.

We can give the name of figures of co-occurence to those stylistic phenomena which are based on combination of meanings in speech. The difference between the figures of replacement and those of co-occurence is as follows. In the former, it is one meaning that produces stylistic effect; in the latter, it is a combination of at least two meanings that produces stylistic effect.

Thus, figures of replacement break down to figures of quantity and figures of quality.

Figures of quantity: hyperbole, understatement, litotes.

Figures of quality are subdivided into metonymical group (transfer by contiguity) consisting of metonymy, synecdoche, periphrasis; metaphorical group (transfer by similarity): metaphor, personification, epithet; and irony (transfer by contrast).

Figures of co-occurence are subdivided into three groups:

figures of identity (simile, synonymic repetition);

figures of inequality (gradation, anti-climax);

figures of contrast (antithesis, oxymoron).

 

FIGURES OF REPLACEMENT

Figures of Quantity

Hyperbole is the use of a word, a word-group or a sentence which exaggerates the real degree of a quantity of the thing spoken about. It is a distortion of reality for the purpose of visualization or strengthening the emotional effect. It is also an important expressive literary device, often employed for humouristic purposes. E.g.:

«One after another those people lay down on the grass to laugh - and two of them died» (Twain).

Understatement consists in lessening, reducing the real quantity of the object of speech. The psychological essence of understatement is more complicated than that of hyperbole. The hearer is expected to understand the intentional discrepancy between what the speaker says about the object and what he really thinks about it. E.g.:

«I was half afraid you had forgotten me».

Litotes is a specific variety of understatement consisting in expressing the lessened degree of quantity of a thing by means of negation of the antonym. The negation of the antonym expresses the positive idea but in a somewhat lessened degree. E.g., «not bad» in the meaning of «good», or «little harm will be done by that».

Figures of Quality

Figures of quality, called «tropes» in traditional stylistics, are based on transfer of names.

We must distinguish three types of transfer:

1) transfer by contiguity;

2) transfer by similarity;

3) transfer by contrast.

Transfer by contiguity is based upon some real connection between the two notions: that which is named and the one the name of which is taken for the purpose.

Transfer by similarity is based on similarity, likeness of the two objects, real connection lacking completely.

Transfer by contrast is the use of words and expressions with theopposite meanings - opposite to those meant.

The transfer by contiguity forms the metonymic group of tropes;the transfer by similarity forms the metaphorical group; the transfer by contrast is irony.

Metonymic group. Metonymy proper. Metonymy is applying the name of an object to another object in some way connected with the first.

The metonymic connections between the two objects are manifold:

a) source of action instead of the action: «Give every manthine ear and few thy voice»;

b) effect instead of the cause: «He (fish) desperately takes the eath»;

c) characteristic feature instead of the object itself: «He was followed by a pair of heavy boots»;

d) symbol instead of the object symbolized: «crown» for «king».

Synecdoche. Synecdoche is a variety of metonymy. It consists in using the name of a part to denote the whole, or vice versa. E.g.: «To be a comrade with a wolf and owl...». In this example «wolf» and «owl» stand for wild beasts and birds in general.

Periphrasis. Periphrasis is in a way related to metonymy. It is a description of an object instead of its name. E.g.:

«Delia was studying under Rosenstock - you know his repute as a disturber of the piano keys» (instead of «a pianist»).

Metaphorical group. Metaphor. Metaphor is a transfer of the name of an object to another object on the basis of similarity, likeness, affinity of the two objects. At the same time there is no real connection between them, as in the case with metonymy. The stylistic function of a metaphor is not a mere nomination of the thing in question but rather its expressive characterization. E.g.:

«The machine sitting at the desk was no longer a man; it was a busy New York broker...» (0'Henry).

Metaphor has no formal limitations: it can be a word, a phrase, any part of a sentence, or a sentence as a whole. Metaphors are either simple or complex (prolonged). A simple, elementary metaphor is that which has no bearing on the context: it is a word, a phrase, a sentence. A prolonged metaphor is elaborated in a series of images logically connected with one another producing a general description of a character, a scene, etc.

Personification is a particular case of metaphor. It consists in attributing life and mind to inanimate things. Besides the actual objects of Nature abstractions of the mind, such as life, death, truth, wisdom, love, evil, hope, etc. are frequently personified. Thus, personification is ascribing human properties to lifeless objects.

In classical poetry of the 17^th century personification was a tribute to mythological tradition and to the laws of ancient rhetoric:

«How soon hath Time, the subtle thief of youth,

Stolen on his wing my three and twentieth year!»

(Milton)

In poetry and fiction of the last two centuries personification was used to impart the dynamic force to the description or to reproduce the particular mood by which the events described are coloured.

Personification is an important device used to depict the perception of the outer world by the lyrical hero.

In most cases personification is indicated by some formal signals.First of all, it is the use of personal pronouns «he» and she»with reference to lifeless things:

«Then Night, like some great loving mother, gently lays her hand at our fevered head... and, though she does not speak, we knowwhat she would say...» (Jerome).

Personification is often achieved by the direct address:

«O stretch by reign, fair Peace, from shore to shore

Till conquest cease, and slavery be no more».

(A. Pope)

Another formal signal of personification is capitalized writing of theword which expresses a personified notion:

«No sleep till morn, when Youth and Pleasure meet

To chase the glowing Hours with flying feet».

(Byron)

One should bear in mind that sometimes the capital letter has nothing in common with personification, merely performing an emphasizing function.

Allusion. Allusion is a brief reference to some literary or historical event commonly known. The speaker (writer) is not explicit about what he means: he merely mentions some detail of what he thinks analogous in fiction or history to the topic discussed. Consider the following example:

«If the International paid well, Aitken took good care he got his pound of flesh...» (Chase).

Here the author alludes to Shakespeare's Shylock, a usurer in «The Merchant of Venice» who lends Antonio three thousand ducats for three months on condition that on expiration of the term, if the money is not paid back, Shylock is entitled to «an equal pound» of Antonio's «fair flesh».

Antonomasia. Metaphorical antonomasia is the use of the name of a historical, literary, mythological or biblical personage applied to a person whose characteristic features resemble those of the well-known original. Thus, a traitor may be referred to as Brutus, a ladies' man deserves the name of Don Juan.

Irony. Irony is a transfer based upon the opposition of the two notions: the notion named and the notion meant. Here we observe the greatest qualitative shift, if compared with metonymy (transfer by contiguity) and metaphor (transfer by similarity).

Irony is used with the aim of critical evaluation of the thing spoken about. E.g.:

«What a noble illustrations of the tender laws of this favoured country! - they let the paupers go to sleep!» (Dickens).

In oral speech irony is made prominent by emphatic intonation, mimic and gesticulation. In writing, the most typical signs are inverted commas or italics.

 

LECTURE 3

 

FIGURES OF CO-OCCURENCE

The figures of co-occurence are formed by the combination in speech of at least two independent meanings. They are divided intofigures of identity, figures of inequality and figures of contrast.

Figures of Identity

To this group of figures simile and synonymic repetition are referred.

Simile. It is an explicit statement concerning the similarity, the affinityof two different notions. The purpose of this confrontation of the names of two different objects is to characterizevividly one of the two. One of the two co-occurring denominations is the name of the object really spoken about; the other denomination is that of an object not connected with the first objective reality but having certain features in common with the first object. E.g.:

“ That fellow (first object) is LIKE an old fox (second object)”.

The existence of common features is always explicitly expressed in a simile, mostly by means of the words «as», «like» I others.

There are two type of simile. In one of them the common feature of the two objects is mentioned:

" He is as beautiful as a weathercock».
In the second type the common feature is not mentioned; the hearer is supposed  to guess what features the two objects have in common:

“ My heart is like a singing bird».

Care should be taken not to confuse the simile and any sort of elementary

Logical comparison. A simile presupposes confrontation

of two objects belonging to radically different semantic spheres; a comparison deals with two objects of the same semantic sphere:

«She can sing like a professional actress» (logical comparison);      

«She sings like a nightingale» (simile).

Synonymic repetition. To figures of identity we may refer the use of synonyms denoting the same object of reality and occurring in the given segment of text. We should distinguish:

a) the use of synonyms of precision,

b) the use of synonymic variations.

Synonyms of precision. Two or more synonyms may follow one another to characterize the object in a more precise way. The second synonym expresses some additional feature of the notion; both synonyms permit a fuller expression of it. E.g.:

«Joe was a mild, good-natured, s weet-tempered, easy-going, foolish fellow» (Dickens).

Synonymic variations. Frequently synonyms or synonymic expressions are used instead of the repetition of the same word or the same expression to avoid the monotonousness of speech, as excessive repetition of the same word makes the style poor. E.g.:

«He brought home numberless prizes. He told his mother countless stories every night about his school companions» (Thackeray).

Figures of Inequality

A very effective stylistic device is created by special arrangement in the text of words or phrases, or sentences which differ from one another by the degree of property expressed or by the degree of emotional intensity. In accordance with the order of strong and weak elements in the text two figures of inequality are distinguished: climax, or gradation, and anti-climax, or bathos.

Climax (gradation) means such an arrangement of ideas (notions) in which what precedes is inferior to what follows. The first element is the weakest; the subsequent elements gradually rise in strength. E.g.:

«I am sorry. I am so very sorry. I am so extremely sorry» (Chesterton).

Anti-climax (bathos). By anti-climax any deviation of the order of ideas found in climax is usually meant. But it should be underlined that anti-climax consists in weakening the emotional effect by adding unexpectedly weaker elements to the strong ones which were mentioned above. Usually anti-climax is employed for humouristic purposes. E.g.:

«The woman who could face the very devil himself - or a mouse - loses her grip and goes all to pieces in front of a flash of lightning» (Twain).

Figures of Contrast

These figures are formed by intentional combination in speech of ideas, incompatible with one another. The figures in question are antithesis and oxymoron.

Antithesis is a confrontation of two notions which underlines the radical difference between them.

Two words or expressions of the opposite meanings may be usedto characterize the same object. E.g.:

«It was the best of times, it was the worst of times, it was the age of wisdom, it was the age of foolishness...» (Dickens).

  Antithesis may be used to depict two objects with opposite characteristics. E.g.:

«His fees were high; his lessons were light...» (O'Henry). Two objects may be opposed as incompatible by themselves and each of them obtain a characteristic opposite to that of the

«For the old struggle - mere stagnation, and in place of danger and death, the dull monotony of security and the horror of an unending decay!» (Leacock).

Oxymoron. Oxymoron consists in ascribing a property to an object incompatible, inconsistent with that property. It is a logical collision of words syntactically connected but incongruent in their meaning. E.g.:

«O brawling love! О loving hate!» (Shakespeare)

 

LECTURE 4

 

STYLISTIC LEXICOLOGY

It is known that words are not used in speech to the same extent. Since certain words occur less frequently than others, it is natural to presume that the difference between them is reflected upon the character of the words themselves. Those words that are indispensable in every act of communication have nothing particular about them -cause no definite associations. On the contrary, words used only in special spheres of linguistic intercourse have something attached to their meaning, a certain stylistic colouring.

Indispensable words are stylistically neutral. Words of special spheres are stylistically coloured. This is the main division of words from the stylistic viewpoint.

Thus, words pertaining to special spheres of linguistic intercourse possess some fixed stylistic tinge of their own. Regardless of the context, they reveal their attachment to one linguistic sphere or another. An English speaking person needs no context to state that such synonyms as chap - man - individual or dad -father - sire are stylistically different. But this differentiation does not remain stable. The stylistic value undergoes changes in the course of history, with the lapse of time. Therefore, stylistic classifications must be confined to synchronic aspect.

So all the words are divided into neutral and non-neutral. The general stylistic classification must show the relations of non-neutral words to neutral ones. It is evident that certain groups of stylistically coloured words must be placed, figuratively speaking, above the neutral words. These groups are formed by words with a tinge of officiality or refinement about them, poetic words, high-flown words in general. Other groups are to be placed below the neutral words. Their sphere of use is socially lower than the neutral sphere. We can name them «super-neutral» (elevated) and «sub-neutral» (words of lower ranks), respectively.

 

Super-neutral Words

Among elevated words we can find those which are used in official documents, diplomatic and commercial correspondence, legislation,etc. Such words have a tinge of pomposity about them. Their colouring is that of solemnity, and the words are termed «solemn words». The other variety of words is the poetic diction -

words used in poetry and lyrical prose. They are «poetic words». True, it is hardly possible to deliminate strictly solemn words from poetic words.

The stylistic colouring of elevation also occurs in archaisms, bookish words and foreign words.

Archaisms. This term denotes words which are practically out of use in present-day language and are felt as obsolete.

Archaisms may be subdivided into two groups. The first group is represented by «material archaisms», or «historical archaisms» - words whose referents have disappeared. The second group is formed by archaisms proper - those words which have been ousted by their synonyms.

In the works of fiction the use of archaic words serves to characterize the speech of the bygone epoch, to reproduce its atmosphere. It should be noted that archaisation does not mean complete reproduction of the speech of past epochs; it is effected by the use of separate archaic words.

In oilier cases, occurring in the speech of a person, archaic words show his attachment to antiquity.

In poetry archaisms are used to create romantic atmosphere, the general colouring of elevation. The colouring may be described as poetic and solemn at the same time.

In official form of speech the function of archaisms is the same as poetry (to rise above the ordinary matters of everyday life), but the colouring produced is different. It is the colouring of solemnity.

Bookish words. These words belong to that stratum of the vocabulary which is used in cultivated speech only - in books or in such special types of oral communication as public speeches, official negotiations, etc. They are mostly loan-words, Latin and Greek. They are either high-flown synonyms of neutral words, or popular terms of science. Consider the following example:

A great crowd came to see - A vast concourse was assembled to witness.

Began his answer - commenced his rejoinder.

A special stratum of bookish words is constituted by the words traditionally used in poetry («spouse» - husband or wife, «woe» - sorrow, «foe» - enemy). Some of them are archaic: «aught» - anything, «naught» - nothing, others are morphological variants of neutral words: «oft» - often, «list» - listen, «morn» -morning.

Foreign words. Foreign words should not be confused with borrowed words. Foreign words in English are for the most part late borrowings from French - those words which have preserved their French pronunciation and spelling. For example, the French formula «Au revoir» used in English by those ignorant of French has something exquisite. In the French word «chic» the same tinge of elegance is felt.

Sub-neutral Words

Among the sub-neutral words the following groups are distinguished:

a) words used in informal speech only - the colloquial words;

b) jargon words and slang, as well as individual creations
(nonce-words);

c) vulgar words.

The first group lies nearest to neutral words. In their use there is no special stylistic intention whatever on the part of the speaker. The words of the second group have been created, so to speak, on purpose with a view to intentional stylistic degradation. The lowest place is taken by vulgarisms, i.e. words which due to their indecency are scarcely admissible in a civilized community.

Colloquial words. They are words with a tinge of familiarity or inofficiality about them. There is nothing ethically improper in their stylistic coloring, except that they cannot be used in official forms of speech. To colloquialisms may be referred:

colloquial words proper (colloquial substitutes of neutral words), e.g., chap;

phonetic variants of neutral words: baccy (tobacco), fella

       (fellow);

diminutives of neutral words: daddy, piggy, as well as diminutives of proper names - Bobby, Becky, Johny;

words the primary meaning of which refer them to neutral sphere while the figurative meaning places them outside the neutral sphere, making them lightly colloquial. E.g., spoon as a colloquial word means «a man with a low mentality».

c) most interjections belong to the colloquial sphere: gee!

Er? Well, etc.

.Jargon words. Jargon words appear in professional or social groups for the purpose of replacing those words which already exist in the language.

Jargon words can be subdivided into two groups: professional jargonisms and social jargonisms. The first group conists of denominations of things, phenomena and process characteristic of the given profession opposed to the official terms of this professional sphere. Thus, professional jargonisms are unofficial substitutes of professional terms. They are used by representatives of the profession to facilitate the communication.

The group of social jargonisms is made up of words used to denotenon-professional thing relevant for representatives of the given social group with common interests (e.g., music fans, drug-addicts and the like). Such words are used by representatives of the given group to show that the speaker also belongs to it (I-also belong-to-the-group function). Very often they are used for the purpose of making speech incoherent to outsiders. When used outside the group in which they were created, such words impart expressiveness to speech. In literary works jargonisms indicate to the fact that the speaker belongs to a certain professional or social group.

Very close to jargon is cant.

Cant is a secret lingo of the underworld - of criminals. The only primary reason why it appeared is striving to secrecy, to making speech incomprehensible to outsiders. It also serves as a sign of recognition.

It is noteworthy that when jargon words and cant are used in literary works they are employed to show that the character belongs to a certain professional or social or criminal group (the function of characterization).

Slang. Slang is the part of the vocabulary made by commonly understood and widely used words and expressions of humorous kind - intentional substitutes of neutral and elevated words and expressions. The psychological source of its appearance and existence is striving for novelty in expression. Many words and expressions now referred to slang originally appeared in narrow professional groups; since they have gained wide currency, they must be considered as belonging to slang.

In creation of slang various figures of speech take part:

the upper storey (head) - metaphor;

skirt (girl) - metonymy;

killing (astonishing) - hyperbole;

whistle (flute) - understatement;

clear as mud - irony.

In slang we find expressions borrowed from written speech (e.g., «yours truly» used instead of the pronoun «I»). Some slang words are just distortions of literary words: cripes (instead of Christ). Sometimes slang words are just invented: shinanigan (trifles, nonsense).

Noun-words. Nonce-words are defined as chance words, occasional words, words created for the given occasion by analogy with the existing words by means of affixation, composition, conversion, etc. E g., «There was a balconyful of gentlemen...» (the word balconyful   was coined by analogy with the words «mouthful»,«spoonful», «handful»). Being non-existent, unknown, yet comprehensible in the given situation, such words produce humorous effect. Being used just once, they disappear completely.

Vulgar words. This is a stylistically lowest group of words which are considered offensive for polite usage. They may be subdivided into two groups: lexical vulgarisms and stylistic vulgarisms.

To the first group belong words expressing ideas considered unmentionable in a civilized society. It is, so to speak, the very lexical meaning of such words which is vulgar.

The second group - stylistic vulgarisms - are words the lexical meanings of which have nothing indecent or improper about them.  Their impropriety in civilized life is due solely to their stylistic value - to stylistic connotation expressing derogatory attitude of the speaker towards the object of speech.

In real life vulgar words help to express emotions, emotive and expressive assessment of the object spoken about. When used in works of literature they perform the function of characterization. If used too frequently, vulgar words lose their emotional quality and become mere expletives (e.g., «You are so darn good-looking»).