The principle parts of the sentence

Part 1. THE SIMPLE SENTENCE

The principle parts of the sentence

The study of the simple sentence in Syntax is reduced to the study of the principal parts, secondary parts and independent elements. The principal parts of a sentence are the subject and the predicate (tab. 1). The secondary parts are the attribute, the object and the adverbial modifier.

Table 1

The principle parts of the sentence

Subject	Predicate
Ways of expressing the subject: noun, pronoun, substantivized adjective or participle, numeral, infinitive, gerund, quotation, syntactically indivisible group. It as a subject can be notional and formal.	nominal	verbal
		simple	compound
			modal	aspect
	Mixed types of the predicate

The Subject

Exercise 1. Find the subject in the sentence and say what they are expressed by.

1. Life is full of compensations. 2. Nancy is my close friend. 3. She found this hard to believe. 4. Everything that lay before us was new and mysterious. 5. Yours was a clever choice. 6. Reading is a way of learning things. 7. To accept this offer is to radically change your life. 8. Thirteen is a tricky number: with some nations it means good luck, with others bad luck. 9. The rich and the powerful rule the country.
10. Your constant perhapses and might-have-beens irritate me. 11. Shopping is my life. 12. To have been hit under the belt by your closest friend must have been a shock for you, Andrew. 13. Oxford is one the oldest towns in England. 14. To live long is the wish of all people. 15. Two is a company, three is a crowd. 16. On is a preposition. 17. None of the chairs look comfortable. 18. Who can live without water? 19. Not everybody is so lucky as you are. 20. She went out of the room.

Exercise 2. Analyse the pronoun it used as the subject in the following sentences.

1. It doesn’t matter. 2. It was very pleasant on the river’s bank. 3. It’s raining here at the moment. 4. Who was that you were speaking to? – It was just the postman. 5. It took Stephen some time to work out what she meant. 6. It is impossible to make any decision. 7. He gave her an engagement ring. It was very beautiful and very expensive. 8. The strike went on for over a year. Finally it was settled. 9. It seemed like a good idea. 10. The punishment wasn’t severe. It was a three month stay in prison. 11. It’s unexplainable, don’t even try to do it. 12. It’s vitally important that you give up smoking. It has become too bad for your lungs. 13. It’s hard to believe that you are leaving us for such a long period of time. 14. How far is it from your office to the bank? 15. It’s an antique vase. It’s very, very old. 16. It was curious to observe the child. 17. It was he who brought me the money. 18. It is a long way to the station.
19. We’ve just got urgent information. It can explain everything. 20. It is morning already.

Exercise 3. Make sentences with emphatic it according to the model. There can be more than one variant.

Model: She told me the truth (only) many years later.

It was to me that she told the truth many years later.

It was only many years later that she told me the truth.

1. Undoubtedly, he did it. 2. Mr. Nickolson himself offered me the vacancy. 3. Brian wants a new bicycle. 4. Victor met Victoria in the year 2000. 5. I don’t like meat, I like fish. 6. Susan isn’t studying languages, she is studying law. 7. We need your help badly. 8. Daniel particularly liked Nabokov’s works. 9. She escaped danger by listening to her intuition. 10. Andy’s quick reaction saved the mountaineers. 11. Jane remembered her childhood years with nostalgic feelings. 12. I met Christopher on my way to the publisher’s.

Exercise 4. Point out the subject and say by what it is expressed by.

1. At that moment the postman, looking like a German army soldier, came in with the mail. (Mansfield). 2. The clock struck eight. There was no sign of any other guests. (Huxley). 3. Now, there is something particularly intimate in sharing an umbrella. (Mansfield). 4. Together we walked through the mud and slush. (Mansfield).
5. Something impersonal and humble in that action seemed to reassure the Council. (Cronin). 6. The sight of them, so intent and so quick, gave Bertha a curious shiver. (Mansfield). 7. Eight o’clock in the morning. Miss Ada Moss lay in a black iron bedstead, staring up at the ceiling. (Mansfield). 8. Still, the good of mankind was worth working for. (Galsworthy). 9. Sometimes the past injects itself into the present with a peculiar force. (Heym). 10. Forgetting some things is a difficult matter. (Voynich). 11. To cross from one end to the other was difficult because of the water. (Heym). 12. There was an eagerness and excitement in the faces of the men. (Heym). 13. … and Timothy’s was but one of the hundreds of such homes in this City of London … (Galsworthy). 14. Let’s get out quick. It’s no good wasting time. (Maugham). 15. Now, to go through a stormy night and with wet clothes, and, in addition, to be ill-nourished and not to have tasted meat for a week or month, is about as severe a hardship as a man can undergo. (London). 16. She didn’t know. The “No” was stronger than her craving to be in Frisco’s arms… (Prichard). 17. The mining industry may make wealth and power for a few men and women. But the many will always be smashed and battered beneath its giant threads. 18. Yes, that did sound rather far-fetched and absurd. 19. This, of course, in her present mood, was so incredibly beautiful … She began to laugh. (Mansfield). 20. To live on good terms with people one must share their work and interests. (Prichard). 21. These three deemed themselves the queens of the school. (Ch. Bronte). 22. Who were these people? What are they? (Galsworthy). 23. His was the harsh world of reality. No one could walk around his drawing. (Stone). 24. Governing the district of Gremmen wasn’t turning out to be an easy and pleasant job. (Heym). 25. The firing increased in volume. (Heym). 26. High and low all made fun of him. (Thackeray). 27. For a woman to look at her best is a point of discipline. (James). 28. Your coming home has made as foolish as a young woman of nineteen. (Abrahams). 29. And now his heir and nephew, Thomas Esmond, began to bid for his uncle’s favour. (Thackeray). 30. Obedient little trees, fulfilling their duty. (Kahler).

Exercise 5. State the nature of it. Translate the sentences into Russian.

1. It was dusky in the room and quite chilly. (Mansfield). 2. The bell rang. It was lean, pale Eddie Warren in a state of acute distress. (Mansfield). 3. Oh! Oh! Oh! It was a little house. It was a little pink house. (Mansfield). 4. But in her bosom there was still that bright glowing place. It was almost unbearable. (Mansfield). 5. She sat up, but she felt quite dizzy, quite drunk. It must have been the spring. (Mansfield).
6. It was marvelous to made love to like that. (Prichard). 7. It is the moon that makes you talk to yourself in that silly way. (Shaw). 8. It is very distressing to me, Sir, to give this information. (Dickens). 9. He took the path through the fields: it was pleasanter than the road. (Huxley). 10. If this is liberty, it isn’t going to mean a thing. (Heym). 11. It was now almost four-thirty in the afternoon. (Dreiser). 12. I took a good room. It was very big and light and looked out on the lake. (Hemingway)

Exercise 6. Choose between the infinitive and the -ing form to use it as a subject in the following sentences.

1. I did it because … on living in the country would have been too much of a problem (to go). 2. There was no … how his father would react to the news (to tell). 3. You know, her … cleverer than her husband was half the trouble (to be). 4. Not… home, in fact, seemed lately to become the pattern of his life (to go). 5. I belonged to neither groups, and … was to take sides (to speak). 6. There is no … how long he would have continued on the subject if his attention had not been distracted by a man who appeared on the deck (to know). 7. … her upset would have been an understatement; she was beside herself with anger (to call). 8. There was no … the sound (to mistake). 9. We were in the offices, and … to his room meant going right through the place (to get). 10. Just … silent together like that helps (to be). 11. Just … my trouble would have been in bad state (to mention). 12. Let us admit that … with us is the thing that we cannot do without (to read). 13. … away for a weekend demanded a degree of will and organization (to get). 14. She felt exhilarated, there was no … it (to deny). 15. Though it was fine, … outside at a small table, eating, was not a tempting prospect (to sit).

Exercise 7. Point out the words indicating the doer of the actions expressed by the infinitives and -ing forms used as subject in the following sentences. Define the subject.

Model: Your coming has done him good. – Your.

1. For a woman, being needed is everything in life. 2. I have no idea what we ordered, but ordering gave me time to work out my next move. 3. Not having a newspaper in his hands made the long ride much more boring. 4. For Tom to win was going to be a difficult thing. 5. Losing his twin sister at the age of 14 probably affected him for life. 6. To know him was one of the two greatest gifts in my life. 7. Not telling my sister about it hurts me. 8. Keeping off the subject proved too great a strain for Winifred herself. 9. Making a literary reputation has never been easy. 10. Seeing him makes me glad I left the army.

Exercise 8. Translate the following sentences into English. Pay attention to the means of expressing the subject.

1. Он довольно весёлый человек. 2. Спектакль был просто потрясающий. 3. Это было смелое решение. 4. Он робко посматривал на девушку, сидящую рядом с ним. 5. Случилось что-то невероятное. 6. Оставьте умирающих в покое – они достаточно настрадались. 7. Она – самое прекрасное создание, которое я когда-либо видел. 8. Отвергать прошлое – значит отвергать настоящее. 9. В наше время работать на кого-либо не очень прибыльно.10. То, как он вышел из ком­наты посреди разговора, было не очень вежливо. 11. Меня всегда поражала лазурь весеннего неба. 12. Оказалось, что она глухая. 13. Понимать – означает про­щать. 14. В том, что ты говоришь, много правды, однако тебе не стоит быть таким категоричным в своих суждениях. 15. У меня нет привычки врать.
16. Для меня неприемлемо быть второй! 17. Здесь очень душно! Вы не могли бы открыть окно? 18. Она всегда говорит «нет» на подобные предложения.
19. «У Антонио» был моим любимым рестораном, пока они не сменили своего шеф-повара. 20. Вечеринка была отличная!

The Predicate

Exercise 1. State the types of predicates in the following sentences.

1. It takes a long time to learn a language. 2. My niece has been taking music lessons for a year already. 3. The storm started all of a sudden. 3. They started to work enthusiastically. 4. They stopped talking when the teacher entered the room. 5. He can’t stop loving her. 6. Bob looks like a punk. 7. This novel was a bestseller last year. 8. She turned pale, the news was too bitter. 9. The strawberries look beautiful and taste delicious. I adore them. 10. Nora gave me an odd look. 11. Now we are having a very lazy time. 12. He gave Henry a hearty wink and strode off.

Exercise 2. Say what parts of speech the predicatives are expressed by in the following sentences.

1. This is a “cheer up” book. 2. The Renoirs in this museum are priceless. 3. Mrs. Norris is a great cat-lover. 4. This film was awfully funny. 5. You look great today!
6. The new manager is about thirty. 7. Chris became a computer wiz. 8. Your task is to find the right man to do the job. 9. I am scared, I really am. 10. It was them who did it. 11. The biggest problem in life is choosing. 12. It’s getting cold. 13. He felt lonely. 14. This perfume smells fantastic! 15. Harry’s mouth fell open as the full impact of what he was seeing hit him. 16. It’s up to you. 17. My French is very rusty.

Exercise 3. Comment on the types of predicates in the following sentences.

1. The show was entertaining. 2. The clown was entertaining the children. 3. Who broke the news to you? 4. He is completely broken today. 5. God knows I want to be free. 6. You can talk freely, we are all friends. 7. Let’s get out of here, I’m freezing. 8. This pond usually freezes in winter. 9. The gardener explained that the stream had run dry some ten years before and the garden had run wild too. 10. They were shouting and fighting wildly. 11. The door stood open. 12. The book stood the test of time. 13. She feels uncertain about it. 14. We are still feeling our way. 15. Truant children run wild. 16. He runs his own business perfectly. 17. The question remains open.

Exercise 4. Fill in the gaps with one of the following link-verbs.

1. In the middle of the talk the line … dead.

2. She counted to one hundred to … cool.

3. The detective … motionless behind the door.

4. Carl Ray’s mouth sort of … open.

5. That dog … me crazy.

6. It … reasonable to me.

7. The music … too loud.

8. His words … true.

9. The words, unfortunately, … unspoken.

10. She … icy cold.

11. I think your memory … deeply buried, repressed.

12. It … a capital idea.

13. They … impatient.

14. To everybody’s surprise, she … a feminist.

15. The book … open at the end.

16. That sounds … sharp and clear in the quiet of the evening.

17. Dad … frantic.

18. The North Sea oil revenues … dry.

19. But today, nothing was going to … wrong.

20. His face … from red to green like a set of traffic lights.

was going, became, grew, fell, went, stayed, felt, go, rang, sounded, seems, drives, run, stood, dropped, stay, went, remained, appears, rang.

Exercise 5. Translate into English.

1. Он был твёрд в своём решении. 2. Вопрос остаётся открытым. 3. Дом оста­вался пустым в течение двадцати лет. 4. Лицо Макса стало кирпично-красным. 5. Пойми, твоё поведение сводит с ума твоих родителей. 6. Он выглядел победоносно. 7. Мальчик торжествующе посмотрел на всех. 8. Уши Рона стали пунцовыми. 9. Металл оставался твёрдым. 10. У Гарри онемело всё тело. 11. Дверь моментально распахнулась. 12. У меня вдруг пересохло во рту. 13. Подошла официантка, и обе женщины умолкли. 14. В чём дело? Ты вдруг так побледнела. 15. Он разорился. 16. Ребёнок заболел на прошлой неделе. 17. Яблоко кислое на вкус. 18. Этот ручей пересыхает летом. 19. Сад пришёл в запустение. 20. Ино­гда слова могут звучать так холодно. 21. Эти ягоды так хорошо пахнут.

Exercise 6. Read and translate the sentences. Comment on the predicates in them.

1. Take it easy! 2. In the morning we discovered that the river had frozen solid during the night. 3. It serves him right. 4. They painted the door green. 5. Mrs. Weasley seemed to go crying for so long that she had shouted herself hoarse. 6. If you enter deep into my world, you’ll sink low. 7. I thought I was going to faint dead away right there. 8. He was frozen stiff and hungry. 9. The girl slapped her book shut and rose. 10. She climbed out of the tub and toweled herself dry. 11. He was buried alive.
12. The police caught the robbers red-handed. 13. Now, don’t get me wrong. 14. The pizza was served hot. 15. Love me tender, love me sweet! 16. I like my coffee white. 17. Why does he write so well? 18. Dig deep into the heart of English. 19. He drank the bottle dry. 20. You’ll have to judge it cold. 21. He kept it fresh in everyone’s mind by constantly talking about it. 22. Caught by surprise, the boy fell hard on the concrete floor. 23. Dudley had laughed himself silly at Harry. 24. He woke early in the morning, but for some time kept his eyes shut tight. 25. The bank promises to keep my money safe.

Exercise 7. Translate into English.

1. Относитесь к этому проще! 2. Снег лежал толстым слоем под деревьями. 3. Я хочу вырваться из-под твоей опеки! 4. Солнце погрузилось в море, огромное и пунцовое. 5. Её отец умер бедным человеком. 6. Тут и там окна светились жёл­тым светом в темноте. 7. Корабль был отправлен налегке за грузом табака. 8. В ту ночь Гарри долго лежал без сна. 9. Забытые книги лежали на столе. 10. Как правило, лекарства хранят в прохладном месте. 11. Мне трудно подобрать слова. 12. Его нашли без сознания на полу. 13. Мать Эрика умерла молодой. 14. Их сын вернулся из экспедиции взрослым мужчиной. 15. Взошла луна, огромная и яркая. 16. Он стоял, никем не замеченный, в углу комнаты. 17. Журналы ле­жали открытыми на столе. 18. Она лежала на кровати совершенно зако­че­невшая. 19. После чудесного обеда я отправился спать счастливым ребёнком. 20. Если мне не изменяет память, самолет вылетает завтра рано утром. 21. Новая метла по-новому метёт. 22. Огромные богатства лежат скрытыми на дне океана.

Exercise 8. Choose between the infinitive and the -ing form to use it as predicative in the following sentences.

Note: point out the instances when the particle to can be omitted before the infinitive.

1. “My job is... everyone alike, and be courteous, even when passengers are not,” said the stewardess (to treat).2. But the difficulty was... an excuse for absence from home (to find). 3. The place was cheerful and he felt relaxed. It was like... warm in bed (to be).4. My idea was... a fuller explanation of what they plan to discuss (to demand).5. All you can do is... (to obey).6. His request meant... further than I was prepared to go (to go).7. The only thing to do was... who she was (to explain).8. He didn’t know what to talk to him about. It was like... an unknown brother (to meet).
9. All he wanted to do was... and... (to sit, to dream).10.To love John was like... alive (to burn). 11.The first objective was... ourselves a suitable house to live in (to find). 12. “To say that you are a fool is... it very mildly,” said Douglas (to put).
13. All I wanted to do was... the formalities short (to cut).14. The loss of his job meant... poor again (to be). 15. The best thing for you to do is... the thought of her out of your 5 mind (to put).16. One of the first things he did was... his brother (to telephone).

Exercise 9. Point out the words indicating the doer of the action expressed by the infinitives and the -ingforms used as predicatives in the following sentences.

l. The last thing I want is for him to think I’m deceiving him. 2. The really important thing was saving the children. 3. Unable to understand the text, he did the next best thing which was to learn it by heart. 4. To cross the stream in the place meant walking knee-deep in the water. 5. She thought that the straightforward method was to write a couple of lines to the man himself. 6. To discuss the international situation with them was like some­one playing the piano only with the family to listen to him. 7. All he wanted at this moment was for everyone to disperse quietly. 8. The only service you can do him is to keep quiet. 9. All he wanted was for me to get out of his sight. 10. My job is to please my guests. 11. The least I can do is give them a chance. 12. All they wanted to do was get down to business.

Exercise 10. Choose between the infinitive and the -ing formas part of a com­pound verbal predicate in the following sentences.

1. I seem... my life saying good-bye (to spend).2. I left the clothes lying wherever they happened... (to fall). 3. She waited while Johnson went round... hands with every­body (to shake).4. When they chanced... she always gave him a friendly smile (to meet).5. As I stood... on the corner of the street, Gerald Sutton came by (to wait).6. Caro sat... the side of her glass (to stroke).7. I happened... into her in the library (to run).8. Then acricket ball came... through the window and rolled underneath the piano (to smash).9. The print seemed... before his eyes (to blur).10. I find plenty to do. I have a very nice neighbour. We go... and... together (to fish, to sail).11. Tom never seemed... his mother to know what he had been doing (to want).12. I woke abruptly from sleep and sat up... (to listen). 13. Martha was out... her friend (to meet).14. He doesn’t seem... what love means (to know).15. Dick considered her suggestion and appeared... it acceptable (to find).16. Her office turned out... in one of the back streets (to be).17. So I sat... at the diary, as at a blank space in a crossword puzzle (to stare).18. Jimmy proved … a good teacher (to be).19. “So what?” she eyed me curiously. There seemed... a faint foreign accent in her voice (to be).20. I sat... from time to time that he would just go away (to wish).

Exercise 11. Use the required form or the infinitive in its function of part of a compound verbal predicate.

1. He seemed... all the friendliness he had shown at our previous meeting (to lose).
2. “I happen... her lawyer and she telephoned to me,” I said to the man (to be).3. It became clear that Charles was still idle. He seemed... scarcely any law (to read).
4. The cat seems..., missing for about three weeks (to be).5. He appeared... that they had had the first serious difference of opinion in the whole of their married life (to forget).6. “Dr. Salt, what do you think you’re doing?” “People seem... me that for days,” said Dr. Salt mildly (to ask).7. Not going home, in fact, seemed lately... the pattern of his life (to become).8. My mother thought that his hobbies would get him nowhere. In this she turned out... wrong (to be).9. It seemed... in the room. The floor, the chairs, the desk were covered in drifts of white. It was torn paper (to snow).10. She leant far over the banister and strained her ears. All the family seemed... at once (to talk).11. The general seemed... a great deal (to age) . 12. Charles met me the first day I came to London, and our friend­ship seemed... a long time (to establish). 13. He did not even seem... what the fuss was about (to under­stand). 14. In front of one window there was a small table and Harry was sitting at it, peering at a pile of papers which he seemed... or... (to copy, to translate). 15. When I arrived there I didn’t see the dog. Not much else seemed... (to change). 16. Then I caught sight of her on the far side of the square. She seemed... good-bye to someone (to say).

Exercise 12. Point out the predicate and say to what type it belongs.

1. Presently she grew tired of that and looked across at her sister. (Galsworthy).
2.You shall have as many dances as you like. I shan’t dance with anyone except you and Maxim. (Du Maurier).3. Well, d’you feel any better now? (Priestley).4. Harry was enjoy­ing his dinner. (Mansfield).5. Alice went on, he ought to stop doing nothing and criticizing everybody. (Lindsay).6. Everything is being taken down and used against you. (Lindsay).7. The story will only get repeated and exaggerated. (Du Maurier).8. But I’ve got to have a word with him. We got to do something about it. (Prichard). 9. She became bitter and unapproachable. (Thorne).10. Her marriage was more or less fixed or the twenty-eighth of the month. They were to sail for India on September the fifth. (Lawrence).11. Leila’s partner gave a little gasping laugh. (Mansfield).12. You are to go straight to your room. You are to say nothing of this to anyone. (De la Roche).13. He was a country doctor. He died young. (Sanborn).14. I began to stammer my apologies. He would not listen to me. (Du Maurier).15.To walk in this way behind him seemed to Annette already a sufficient marvel. (Murdoch).16. A ship – the Vestris – is reported to be arriving at Joppa. (Douglas).17. Led was having a little new sort of weeping fit daily or every other day. (Wescott).18. Even now he was able to find a thin excuse for that young idiot. (Kahler).19. Do not delay, there is no time. Teacher Williams lies dead already. (Buck). 20. The grey house had ceased to be a home for family life. (Buck).21. Kit had been told to do nothing in particular. (Lindsay).22. Lately he’d made efforts to bring the matter up with Brian orColin. (Lindsay).23. The sky shone pale. (Mansfield).24. These days are finished. They are blotted out. I must begin living all over again. (Du Maurier).25. Next day, by noon, I was up anddressed, and sat wrapped in a shawl by the nursery hearth. (Ch. Bronte).26. And all the while he felt the presence of Pat and had to keep on resisting the impulse to turn round. (Lindsay).27. But Abramovici remained quiet. (Heym).28. Morning broke quiet andhush. (Abrahams).29. There were a number of people out this afternoon. And the band sounded louder and gayer. (Mansfield).30. This has proved surprisingly difficult. (Murdoch).

Exercise 13. Say where the predicate is simple and where it is compound (nominal or verbal).

1. Two young girls in red came by. (Mansfield).2. Demetriuscame alive and pressed a flock of inquiries. (Douglas).3. And inmany ways along lines you’d more or less approve, I am comingto feel the mill a part of myself. (Lindsay).4. He tried to be bothfirm and friendly. I’ve felt dependent on him. (Lindsay).5. He now felt only a confused ache of memory and a growing desire to be home. (Lindsay).6. No one was there to meet Dick. He felt a twinge of disappointment. (Lindsay).7. There was a silence but not an uncomfortable one. (Braine).8. He was vaguely aware of his father standing by kitchen-range with his coat off. (Lindsay).9. The day of our wedding came. He was to call for me to choose the furniture. (Mansfield).10. A good reliable husband he’d make. And our Alice is a great one for wanting a place of her own. (Lindsay).11. That made all the difference. The room came aliveat once. (Mansfield).12.“She sounds serious.” Albertine insisted. “She keeps talking about it.” (Kahler).13. Not even her own children had seen Ma break down. She’d keep a proud face always. (Mansfield).14. My lady keeps a list of the names in a little red book. (Mansfield.)15. Charlie kept quiet. (Priestley).16. Cedric Thompson stood a good three inches above me. (Braine).17. For a moment I stood aghast, peering after her shadowy figure and wondering what had taken her. (Weyman).18. And then they sat silent for a few moments together. (Trollope).19. I sat writing letters on a piece of paper with a pencil. (Haggard).20. And for some time he lie lay gasping on a little flock mattress, rather unequally posed between this world and the next. (Dickens).21. After many adven­tures I and a little girl lay senseless in the Bad Lands. (Haggard).22. He seemed glad to see me. (Du Maurier).23. At that moment everything in her life seemed to be a source of desperate anxiety. (Mur­doch).24. You can smile away till you split your cheek, but you still got to do a day’s work to earn a day’s wages. Apples don’t grow on monkey-trees. (Lindsay). 25. She grew to know the two elderly men better than any other member of Eden’s family. (London).
26. Yates grew impatient. (Heym).27. She turned once more to Mr. Godfrey. (Collins).28. Gwendolen turned pink and pale during this speech. (Eliot).29. Mr. Bruff remained to dinner, and stayed through the evening. (Collins).30. Michelan­gelo remained silent.(Stone).31. I gave up the attempt and went upstairs to unpack. (Braine).32. Michelangelo’s knees went weak. He sat down on his bed. (Stone).33. I looked at the photograph above the mantelpiece and saw my own face for the first time. (Braine). 34. Giovanni looked crestfallen. (Stone).35. He was beginning to sound really angry. (Murdoch).

Exercise 14. Point out the predicative and say by what it is expressed.

1. Annette was completely dazed. (Murdoch).2.Their highest concept of right conduct, in his case, was to get a job. (London).3. I’m five foot eleven in my socks. (Braine).4. Sally, herself, was quite content for a while to enjoy becoming acquainted with her son, washing and feeding him, taking him for walks in the bush, singing him to sleep. (Prichard).5. Mr. de Morfe was as generous and hail-fellow-well-met with them as ever. (Prichard).6. I am cold. And I always was such a one for being warm. (Mansfield).7. Your resemblance to your mother is very striking. (Murdoch).8. He did not answer. I was aware again of that feeling of discomfort. (Du Maurier).9. I hated myself. My question had been degrading, shameful. (Du Maurier).10. Their interests were hers as well as the interests of everybody. (Prichard).11. He’s a good chap. He makes you feel its worth while being alive. (Lindsay).12. Arrived here, his first act was to kneel down on a large stone beside the row of vessels, and to drink a copious draught from one of them. (Lindsay).13. Either course seemed unthinkable, without any connection with himself. (Lindsay).14. The nightmare of my life has come true. We are in danger of our lives. We are white people in a Chinese city. (Buck).15. The best thing is for you to move in with me and let the young lady stay with your mother. (Abrahams).16. But she was herself again, brushing her tears away. (Lindsay).17. The rest of the time was yours. (Douglas).18. How do you feel physically? (Ch. Bronte).19. Who are you? (Shaw).20. The Irish are a philosophic as well as a practical race. Their first and strongest impulse is to make the best of a bad situation. (Dreiser).

Exercise 15. Point out the subject and the predicate.

1. On her going to his house to thank him, he happened to see her through a window. (Dickens).2. To describe one’s character is difficult and not necessarily illuminating. (Murdoch).3. The three on the sofa rise and chat with Hawkins. (Shaw).4. Nothing seemed to matter. (London).5. To be wanted is always good. (Stone).6. Seeing you there will open up a new world. (Murdoch).7. There­after I read everything on the subject. I came to know many Negroes, men and women. (Buck). 8. Elaine, this ill-advised behav­iour of yours is beginning to have results. (Erskine).9. Presently all was silent. They must have gone through the service doors into the kitchen quarters. (Du Maurier).10. The citizens of occu­pied countries were to be subjugated indi­vidually. (Wescolt).11. It was all wrong this situation. It ought not to be happening at all. (Du Maurier).12. My way is not theirs, it is no use trying to run away from them. (Lindsay).13. No one got the better of her, never, never. (Du Maurier).14. Lewisham stopped dead at the corner, staring in blank astonishment after these two figures. (Wells).15.... We and all the people have been waiting patient for many an hour. (Jerome K. Jerome).16. One cannot help admir­ing the fellow. (Dickens).17. Then he gave a low distinct whistle. Itwas answered from under the bluff. (Twain).18. The girl was really beautiful and much above the average intelligence and force. (Dreiser).19. This religion did give pro­mise of creating a new society. There all men could be equally valuable as human beings. (Buck).20. We must begin here and now to show. Thus we might prove our difference from those white men. (Buck).

The Object

The Object is a secondary part of a sentence which completes or restricts the meaning of a verb or sometimes an adjective, a word denoting state, or a noun.

Ways of expressing	Kinds of objects
A noun in the common case, pronoun, substantivized adjective or participle, infinitive (or infinitive phrase/const­ruc­tion), gerund (gerundial phrase/construc­tion), quotation, prepositional phrase with a noun or a gerund, a syntactically indivi­sible group.	1) the direct object; 2) the indirect object; 3) the complex object.

Exercise 1. Point out and identify the word.

1. Tatyana gives music lessons to small children. 2. I bought a painting for my living-room. 3. Put the child to bed. Tell him a story, sing him a song. 4. They gave their kids nice presents on Christmas. 5. The boy showed us his collection of stones.
6. They gave each student a copy of the text. 7. The secretary left a message for the manager. 8. Can you show me the new files? 9. The office got a new computer and a printer. 10. When you come to visit us, we’ll show you all the sights of Moscow.
11. Thank you, you’ve asked me a good question. 12. Don’t give the kids any more sweets. 13. I’d like to have a word with you. 14. The poet recited his new poems to the public. 15. The director promised me a promotion.

Exercise 2. Choose the preposition from the central column which fits the rest of the sentence.

1. Give your share 2. Buy a drink 3. Do a favour 4. Reserve a table 5. Give all your money 6. Save a place 7. Offer a job 8. Pass the file 9. Spare something		Robert. the rest of the group. to a friend. me. your grandchildren. Ted.    the best applicant. the tutor. all of us.
	to
	for

 

Exercise 3. Put the words in the correct order. If necessary, add preposition to.

1. The inspector refused to say (anybody) anything. 2. Would you like to read (the children) a bedtime story? 3. I have promised (a party) the children. 4. Don’t tell (anything) the others. 5. Edward teaches (chemistry) students. 6. I shall have to report (this) the authorities. 7. The manager forgot to mention (his boss) the matter. 8. The Dean explained (the colleagues) the situation. 9. The President announced (his resignation) the press.

Exercise 4. Choose the correct alternative from the central column.

	1. showed
	2. admitted
	3. promised
	4. complained
	5. explained	me	(that) he, she was not (wouldn’t be) responsible for that
He, she	6. taught
	7. mentioned
	8. warned	to me
	9. assured
	10. confessed
	11. answered
	12. proved
	13. said
	14. told
	15. informed
	16. persuaded

Exercise 5. Comment on the objectsin the following sentences.

1. My children have their teeth checkedevery six months. 2. We must have this placetidied up before mother and father come home. 3. How on earth did youmanage to have your house redecorated so quickly andso well? 4. Get your hair cut – it’s a disgrace! 5.1 hadmy wallet stolen when I was in Naples. 6. We’re trying 1 to get the central heating repaired before the bad weather comes. 7. You really ought to have that cut examined: it looks infected to me. 8. She let us have our way. 9. He made us go out. 10. I heard her sing the latest hit. 11. We heard the children quarrelling over the new toy. 12. She expects the guests to arrive soon. 13. Harold promised to be in time for the presentation. 14. Most women enjoy shopping. 15. My guitar needs tuning. 16. Police officers are not used to being contradicted. 17. We waited for the weather to clear. 18. Never write down what you don’t want to be published.

Exercise 6. Point out and identify the type of objects.

1. She gives Charlie a glass of milk every day. 2. I see a picture over there. 3. He has a lot of free time. 4. I saw Mike yesterday. 5. He was afraid of the dark. 6. Tell me this story, please. 7. The teacher ex­plained a new rule to his students. 8. You always make careless mis­takes. 9. I sent my father a telegram yesterday. 10. He showed us his library. 11. He offered me a lift. 12. Stop laughing at me. 13. Jean bought me a copy of the book on Windows 2007. 14. They ate every­thing on the table. 15. She is proud of her son’s paintings.

Exercise 7. Point out the kind of object and say by what it is expressed. Translate into Russian.

1. What have you got there? (Cronin).2.She pretended not to hear. (Mansfieldf).3. Marcellus found the luggage packed and strapped for the journey. (Douglas).4. I know all about it, my son. (Douglas).5. I have to show Dr. French his room. (Shaw). 6. I never heard you express that opinion before, sir. (Douglas). 7. Halting, he waited for the Roman to speak first. (Douglas). 8. He was with you at the banquet. (Douglas).9. They don’t want anything from us – not even our respect. (Douglas). 10. Ibeg your pardon for calling you by your name. (Shaw).11. I found myself pitying the Baron. (Mansfield).12. I’ve got it framed up with Gilly to drive him anywhere. (Kahler).13. He smiled upon the young men a smile at once personal and presidential. (Kahler).14. Gallio didn’t know how to talk with Marcellus about it.(Douglas).15. Laura helped her mother with the goodbyes. (Mans­field).16. Why did you not want him to come back and see me today? (Mansfield).17. Mr. Jinks, not exactly knowing what to do, smiled a dependant’s, smile. (Dickens).18. He found it impos­sible to utter the next word. (Kahler).19. Marcellus issued, crisp orders and insisted upon absolute obedience. (Douglas).20.He’s going to live his own life and stop letting his mother boss him around like a baby. (Kahler).21. I will suffer no priest to interfere in my business. (Shaw).22. Papa will never consent to my being absolutely dependent on you. (Shaw).23. Do you know anything more about this dreadful place? (Douglas).24. She hated Frisco and hated herself for having yielded to his kisses. (Prichard).25. They had been very hard to please. Harry would demand the impossible. (Mansfield).26. His part in the conversation consisted chiefly of yesses and noes. (Kahler).27. Michelangelo could not remember having seen a painting or sculpture of the simplest nature in a Buanarrotti house. (Stone).

Types of subject clauses

When a subject clause precedes the predicate of the main clause:	When a subject clause is in final position, the usual place of the subject being occupied by formal it:
What I need is a piece of good advice. Whether I talked or not made little difference. Because I ask too many questions does not mean I am curious. How the book will sell depends on its plot and the author.	It seemed unfair to him that he should suffer more than his wife. It is understood that modern science allows such experiments.

Exercise 1. Analyze the connectives used to join the subject clauses and write them out under the following heading. Define the position of the subject clause in the complex sentence.

1. What had happened was obvious enough. (W. Maugham). 2. What I say is, let’s do something for the company tonight. (G. Chesterton). 3. It seemed to me I stood by the iron gate leading to the driver. (Du Maurier). 4. Whoever was last there had either not had the time, or had forgotten to shut it. (Haggard). 5. it’s a grand thing when you see the working class in action. (Lindsay). 6. One day after her first week’s rehearsal, what she expected came openly to the surface. (Dreiser). 7. It’s doubtful whether they had ever realized that an ending was bound to come. (Galsworthy). 8. Where he was going was home, and yet he would have to learn the ways of home. (Abrahams).
9. What you saw tonight was an ending. (Murdoch). 10.What I want to know is when you’re going to get married. (London).

Exercise 2. Make up complex sentences with subject clauses according to the patterns.

It is strange that he knows it.      Is it possible that he knows it?

It was strange that he knew it.     Was it possible that he knew it?

It is possible that he will come.

It is (was) strange that he should know (should have known) it.

Is (was) it strange that he should know (should have known) it?

1. It is surprising …. 2. Isn’t it curious …. 3. It seems remarkable …. 4. It is proper …. 5. It seemed …. 6. Is it natural …. 7. It is quite natural …. 8. It wonderful …. 9. It is doubtful …. 10. Did it strike her as unusual …. 11. It appeared odd … didn’t it? 12. Isn’t it a pity …. 13. It looked funny …. 14. Isn’t it fortunate …. 15. It is a pity …. 16. It surprises me …. 17. Is it probable …? 18. Was it likely …? 19. It is most unlikely …. 20. It seemed probable to them ….

Exercise 3. Paraphrase the sentences using subject clauses.

It’s time for her to go home.

It’s time she went home.

1. I still think it’s time for us to get rid of them (after B. Show). 2. You go to her and point out to her how necessary it is for her to get a divorce from him (after G. Wells). 3. It is possible for her to find it helpful (after Christie). 4. But it is natural and rational foe you to like it (after C. Dickens). 5. It is not right for him and Mrs. Donovers to sit there listening to that evidence (after du Maurier).

Types of object clauses

Like objects in a simple sentence, object clauses may vary in their relation to the principal clause and in the way they are attached to the word they refer to or depend on.

1. An object clause may directly follow the word it refers to (a non-prepositional object clause). In this case it is parallel in function to a direct object.

Jon wondered if he had offended her.

I know when I am wasting time.

2. Object clauses parallel in function to indirect objects are very rare. However, they are possible, the necessary condition for it being that the object clause should be followed by a direct object.

You may give whoever you like any presents.

3. There are also cases when an object clause functions like a cognate object to a verb.

He and his mamma knew very few people and lived what might have been thought very lonely lives.

4. An object clause may be joined to the main clause by the preposi­tions after, about, before, beyond, for, near, of, as to, except, etc. (a prepositional object clause). In this case it is parallel in function to a prepositional non-recipient object.

I am not certain of what he did.

I want to be paid for what I do.

Exercise 1. Analyze the connectives used to join the object clauses. Translate the following sentences in Russian.

1. I don’t deny that this is clever enough in its way. (Voynich). 2. I think a man like that’s a real artist. (Parker). 3. I don’t know whether she’s pretty or not. (Parker). 4. I began nervously to reflect on what I should do. (Greenwood). 5. He seemed nervous lest, in thus announcing his inten­tions, he should be setting his granddaughter a bad example. (Galsworthy). 6. I was nervous of what I did not know. (Snow). 7. I want to see how the system works. (Cronin). 8. What I suffer in that way no tongue can tell. (Jerome). 9. The fire destroyed whatever lay in its path. (Wilson). 10. I’ll make a call and see if they’ll cooperate. (Carter). 11. Carrie could not help wondering where she was drifting. (Dreiser). 12. We seem to interfere in what is not our business. (Abrahams). 13. I wondered when the ultimatum would expire. (G. Greene). 14. I listened to what you said. (Wilson). 15. He wondered why he should look back. (Wilson). 16. Take whichever comes first. (Hornsby). 17. And finally, they must consider who had dragged the body towards the house, and why the person had chosen to do so. (Sayers). 18. Do you recollect whether any letters came by the same post for any of the other members of the party? Can you say to whom they were addressed? (Sayers). 19. He is suspicious and jealous for fear anyone else might want to share in his power. (Lawrence).

Exercise 2. Fill in the blanks with the appropriate connectives to join the object clauses.

1. I don’t care to talk... I’ve been. (Dreiser). 2. I don’t know... I said so in my letter. (Cronin). 3. “Thank you,” Lanny said. “You have been really kind. It makes me feel terribly ashamed... I said to you earlier this evening.” (Abrahams). 4. I want to see.... I can get a place. (Dreiser). 5. I was wondering... you and your lady would step across and join my table. (G. Greene). 6. He feared... the disguise would be too thin and... I would penetrate it. (Carter).

Exercise 3. Translate the following sentences into English using object clauses.

1. Я бы хотел, чтобы вы могли поехать с нами за город. 2. Жаль, что я не видела этого фильма. 3. Хотелось, чтобы вы не делали таких грубых ошибок. 4. На­прас­но вы купили этот учебник: мы не будем им пользоваться. 5. Хорошо, если бы вы пошли с нами в театр. 6. К сожалению, они уже уехали. 7. Жаль, что вы не смогли принять участие в соревновании. 8. Хочется, чтобы вы прочли эту книгу на этой неделе. 9. Жаль, что я не смогу поехать в Санкт-Петербург на каникулы. 10. Он сожалел, что потратил так много времени зря. 11. Они на­стаивали на том, чтобы отложили рассмотрение этого вопроса. 12. Мы дого­вори­лись, что билеты доставят к вам домой. 13. Он очень хотел, чтобы вся группа пришла на новогодний вечер. 14. Он боялся, как бы дети не заблудились в лесу. 15. Они опа­сались, как бы ребёнок не заразился скарлатиной.

Exercise 4. Translate the sentences into Russian. Make a list of verbs and phrases requiring the use of the anticipatory it before the object clauses.

1. But I’ll see to it that you get a fair shake. (Wilson). 2. Then I may take it that you’re ready to swear there’s been nothing. (Galsworthy). 3. Parsons would have it that freedom of soul and body were quite different things. (Galsworthy). 4. They’ve got it that Kirby appeared at the house simply to have the Commie lawyer and witnesses testify that he was there. (Carter). 5. He’d take a bet on it that if someone else had met him she would have gone away without so much as letting him know that she had come. (Cusack). 6. I made it clear that I was offering it (the package of cigarettes) to these six men yearning for tobacco. (Parker). 7. We took it for granted I’d go in for law. (Carter).

Exercise 5. Open the brackets using the appropriate form of the verb in object clauses of the first and second grade of subordination.

1. I found that he (not to seem) to be taking in what (to say). (Christie). 2. You are angry with me because you clean forgot it (to be) my birthday today. (Bennett). 3. I wondering whether you and your lady (to step) across and (to join) my table. (G. Green). 4. They explained to him that they (to think) he (to be) someone they knew. (Jerome). 5. I’ll make a call and see if they (to cooperate). (Cronin). 6. He, however, waited, knowing she presently (to open). (Bellow). 7. I said I (to do, not) care a hang whether it (to be) or whether it (not to be). (Jerome). 8. I thought at first he simply (to mean) he (to want) to hire and fire the servants himself. (Ford). 9. He knew that just after Mike (to live) the house, and before Mat (to start) John Lynch (to come out) from the path through the fir woods, just above the light and (to go) down the road towards the beach. (Strange). 10. She was startled that she (to do) it without knowing what she (to be doing). (Saxton). 11. When I asked him what on earth he (to mean) he said he (to become used) to having his wishes and rights ignored. (Ford). 12. About six o’clock they informed him that all the family of his long dead brother (to arrive). (Galsworthy). 13. Suddenly it occurred to me that he was interested genuinely in what Miss Hei (to have to say). (G. Greene).

Types of adverbial clauses

According to their semantics we distinguish adverbial clauses of place, time, manner, comparison, condition, concession, purpose, cause, result.

Adverbial clauses of cause

Adverbial clauses of cause (or causative clauses) express the reason, cause, or moti­vation of the action expressed in the main clause or of its content as a whole.

Causative clauses may be introduced by the conjunctions as, because, since, so, that, lest, seeing (that), considering; or by the composite conjunctions for the reason that, in view of the fact that, in so far as (insofar as), by reason of.

Exercise 1. Write out the conjunctions used to join the adverbial clauses of cause and translate sentences 6–10 into Russian

1. “Oh! I dare say she is crying because he could no go out with Missis in the carriage,” interposed Bessi. (Ch. Bronte). 2. Write that you decline to support this scheme of hers as you hold it to be a dishonest scheme. (Wilde). 3. I think he saw the effect he had produced on me for some days afterwards he wrote and asked to come and see him. (Wilde). 4. We took our umbrellas, because we were afraid it would rain; for the barometer had been falling for some time. (Sweet). 5. Don’t say: “I arrived in Chicago.” Note “arrived at” is correct, for the reason that the city is regarded for the time being, as a mere point. (Baker).

Exercise 2. Translate the sentences into Russian paying attention to the word order in the adverbial clauses of cause and the conjunctions used.

1. Unused as I was to strangers, it was rather a trial to appear thus formally summoned in Mr. Rochester’s presence. (Ch. Bronte). 2. Besieged as she is by practical problems of all sorts, the mother today can hardly have the time to brood over the intricacies of the psychological relationship between mother and child. (Daily Worker). 3. She had be­come increasingly difficult; jealous of her stepdaughter June and making ceaseless plaint that he could not love her, ill as she was, and useless to everyone. (Galsworthy). 4. I can now conjecture readily that this streak of light was, in all likelihood, a gleam from a lantern, carried by some one across the lawn; but then, prepared as my mind was for hor­ror, shaken as my nerves were by agitation, I thought the swift darting beam was a herald of some coming vision from another world. (Ch. Bronte). 5. This state of things should have been to me a paradise of peace, accustomed as I was to a life of ceaseless reprimand and thankless fagging. (Ch. Bron­te). 6. It was far for me to go, weak and ill as I was. (Doyle).

Exercise 3. Translate the sentences into English using adverbial clauses of cause.

1. Я все эти дни не записывал впечатления, потому что писать не хотелось.
2. Раз уж вы настаиваете, мне придётся подчиниться. 3. Девочка, должно быть, серьёзно болела: она очень бледна. 4. Андрей решил, поскольку он нахо­дится здесь, он может, по крайней мере, зайти и догово­риться о встрече. 5. Возьмите
с собой плащ, так как баро­метр падает и небо покрыто тучами. 6. Ребёнка надо отдать в музыкальную школу, так как у него хороший слух.

GENERAL REVISION

Exercise 1. Translate the text into English using compound sentences and complex sentences with various subordinate clauses as suggested in brackets.

Леонардо да Винчи (Leonardo da Vinci) (1452—1519), сын крестьянки из деревни Винчи и богатого нотариуса из Флоренции (Florence), был, как рас­сказывает Вазари (Vasari), Геркулесом, Аполлоном и Орфеем (Hercules, Apollo, Orpheus) в одном лице. (Parenthetical clause). Вазари рас­сказывает, что сила Леонардо была так велика, что он мог согнуть железное кольцо или подкову между пальцами и что он был так хорош собой, что никто не может описать его красоту. (Object clauses, adverbial clauses of result). Леонардо да Винчи был одним из самых совершенных людей, которые когда-либо жили на свете: он был худож­ником, скульптором, поэтом, музыкантом, философом, инженером и геологом. (Attributive clause). О жизни Ле­онардо имеются лишь отрывочные сведения: мы твёрдо знаем, что он служил в Милане при Чезаре Борджиа (Cesare Bor­gia), у которого он работал инженером и организатором празднеств и зрелищ; далее мы знаем, что его пригласил во Францию Франциск I (Francois I). (Object clauses attributive clause).

Его записные книжки также представляют собой огром­ный интерес и могут соперничать с «Размышлениями» Пас­каля (Pascal’s Pensees). Однако, если для Леонардо бес­конечность мира была безмерным чудом, то для Паскаля она была только источником ужаса; он признавался, что боится вечного безмолвия бес­ко­нечного пространства. (Com­pound sentence, object clause).

Имеются лишь 12 картин и несколько пачек рисунков, которые могут быть с уверенностью приписаны Леонардо да Винчи. (Attributive clause). В Эрмитаже находятся две картины великого мастера. «Мадонна с младенцем», извест­ная под названием «Мадонна Бенуа» (Madonna Benois), была приобретена из част­ной коллекции г-жи Бенуа в Пе­тербурге в 1913 году. Как и когда эта картина покинула родину и попала в Россию, неизвестно. (Subject clause). Это одна из наиболее ранних сохранившихся работ Леонардо да Винчи. Вторая картина «Мадонна Лита» (Madonna Litta) была куплена у некоего герцога Литта из Милана в 1865 году. В то время как в «Мадонне Бенуа» художника интересует чистота и счастье девочки-матери, в «Мадонне Лита» он раскрывает другую сторону темы – материнское достоинство. (Compound sentence).

Хотя Леонардо да Винчи был типичным примером образованности и разносторонности эпохи Возрождения, он не принадлежит ни к одному исто­рическому периоду. Подобно Шекспиру, он принадлежит всем векам и всем народам. (По книге Т. Кокса «Возрождение в Европе»).

Exercise 2. Analyze the clauses of the compound and complex sen­tences and show the connections between them. Make up schemes of the sentences.

1. She inquired how long my parents had been dead, then how old I was, what was my name, whether I could read write and sew a little; then she touched my head gently with her forefinger and dismissed me. (Ch. Bronte). 2. The thing that struck me first was that Mark Twain was an elderly man; yet after a minute’s thought, I perceived that it was other­wise, and in five minutes, the eyes looking at me, I saw that the grey hair was an accident of the most trivial; he was young. (Kipling). 3. On the other hand, if you convince the police authorities that there is no possible case against you, I do not know that there is any reason that the details should find their way into the papers. (Doyle). 4. James Ryder, the upper-attendant at the hotel, gave his evidence to the effect that he had shown Horner up to the dressing-room upon the day of the robbery, in order that he might solder the sec­ond bar of the grate, which was loose. (Doyle). 5. These provi­sions laid in, we went on through a great noise and uproar that confused my weary head beyond description, and over abridge which no doubt, was London Bridge, until we came to the poor person’s house, which was a part of some alms-houses. (Ch. Dickens). 6. Sherlock Holmes was a man who when he had an unsolved problem upon his mind would go for days and even for a week without rest, until he had either fath­omed it, or convinced himself that his data were insufficient. (Doyle). 7. When we reached the landing all the old women turned their heads, and as soon