Part III. Peculiarities of South-Western Dialects

Английское отделение

 

Дипломная работа

по фонетике английского языка

на тему:

«REGIONAL VARIATION OF PRONUNCIATION IN THE SOUTH-WEST OF ENGLAND»

 

                                                      

Москва 2001

 

 

Plan:

Introduction…………………………………………………………………………….3

Part I. The Specific Features of dialects

1. What is the “dialect”?……………………………………………………………4

2. Geographic dialects………………………………………………………………5

3. Dialectal change and diffusion…………………………………………………...5

4. Unifying influences on dialects…………………………………………………..8

5. Focal, relic, and transitional areas………………………………………………..9

6. Received Pronunciation………………………………………………………….9

7. Who first called it PR?………………………………………………………….10

8. Social Variation…………………………………………………………………11

9. Dialects of England: Traditional and Modern…………………………………..12

Part II. Background to the Cornish Language

1. Who are the Cornish?…………………………………………………………...15

2. What is a Celtic Language?…………………………………………………….15

3. How is Cornish Related to other Celtic Languages?…………………………...15

4. The Decline of Cornish…………………………………………………………15

5. The Rebirth of Cornish…………………………………………………………16

6. Standard Cornish………………………………………………………………..16

7. Who uses Cornish Today?……………………………………………………...16

8. Government Recognition for Cornish…………………………………………..16

Part III. Peculiarities of South-Western Dialects

1. Vocalisation…………………………………………………………………….18

2. Consonantism…………………………………………………………………...23

3. Grammar………………………………………………………………………..27

3.1 Nouns……………………………………………………………………….27

3.2 Gender………………………………………………………………………27

3.2.1 Gender making in Wessex-type English………………………………….27

                3.3 Numerals……………………………………………………………………29

                3.4 Adjectives…………………………………………………………………...29

.5 Pronouns…………………………………………………………………….30

3.5.1 Demonstrative adjectives and pronouns

                             in a Devonshire dialect…………………………………………………31

3.6 Verbs……………………………………………………………………...39

3.7 Adverbs…………………………………………………………………...42

3.8 Transitivity and intransivity in the dialects

of South-West England…………………………………………………...44

                    4. Vocabulary………………………………………………………………..52

Conclusions…………………………………………………………………………...68

Bibliography…………………………………………………………………………..69

         Supplements…………………………………………………………………………..71

Introduction.

The modern English language is an international language nowadays. It is also the first spoken language of such countries as Australia, New Zealand, Canada, South Africa.

But in the very United Kingdom there are some varieties of it, called dialects, and accents.

The purpose of the present research paper is to study the characteristic features of the present day dialect of the South-Western region in particular.

To achieve this purpose it is necessary to find answers to the following questions:

- What is the “dialect”?

- Why and where is it spoken?

- How does it differ from the standard language?

Methods of this research paper included the analysis of works of the famous linguists and phoneticians as Peter Trudgill and J.K. Chambers, Paddock and Harris, J.A. Leuvensteijn and J.B. Berns, M.M. Makovsky and D.A. Shakhbagova, and also the needed information from Britannica and the encyclopedia by David Crystal and the speech of the native population of Devonshire and Wiltshire.

Structurally the paper consists of three parts focused on the information about “the dialect” in general and the ways it differs from the standard language (its phonetic, grammar and other linguistic differences), and the specific features of the South-West of England.

The status of the English language in the XXth century has undergone certain changes. Modern English has become a domineering international language of nowadays.

 

 

PART I. The Specific Features of dialects.

What is the “dialect”?

Dialect is a variety of a language. This very word comes from the Ancient Greek dialectos “discourse, language, dialect”, which is derived from dialegesthai “to discourse, talk”. A dialect may be distinguished from other dialects of the same language by features of any part of the linguistic structure - the phonology, morphology, or syntax.

“The label dialect, or dialectal, is attached to substandard speech, language usage that deviates from the accepted norm. On the other hand the standard language can be regarded as one of the dialects of a given language. In a special historical sense, the term dialect applies to a language considered as one of a group deriving from a common ancestor, e.g. English dialects”. (№9, p.389)

It is often considered difficult to decide whether two linguistic varieties are dialects of the same language or two separate but closely related languages; this is especially true of dialects of primitive societies.

Normally, dialects of the same language are considered to be mutually intelligible while different languages are not. Intelligibility between dialects is, however, almost never absolutely complete; on the other hand, speakers of closely related languages can still communicate to a certain extent when each uses his own mother tongue. Thus, the criterion of intelligibility is quite relative. In more developed societies, the distinction between dialects and related languages is easier to make because of the existence of standard languages and, in some cases, national consciousness.

There is the term ‘vernacular’ among the synonyms for dialect; it refers to the common, everyday speech of the ordinary people of a region. The word accent has numerous meanings; in addition to denoting the pronunciation of a person or a group of people (“a foreign accent”, “a British accent”, “a Southern accent”). In contrast to accent, the term dialect is used to refer not only to the sounds of language but also to its grammar and vocabulary.

 

Geographic dialects.

The most widespread type of dialectal differentiation is geographic. As a rule, the speech of one locality differs from that of any other place. Differences between neighbouring local dialects are usually small, but, in travelling farther in the same direction, differences accumulate.

“Every dialectal feature has its own boundary line, called an isogloss (or sometimes heterogloss). Isoglosses of various linguistic phenomena rarely coincide completely, and by crossing and interweaving they constitute intricate patterns on dialect maps. Frequently, however, several isoglosses are grouped approximately together into a bundle of isoglosses. This grouping is caused either by geographic obstacles that arrest the diffusion of a number of innovations along the same line or by historical circumstances, such as political borders of long standing, or by migrations that have brought into contact two populations whose dialects were developed in noncontiguous areas”. (№9, p.396)

Geographic dialects include local ones or regional ones. Regional dialects do have some internal variation, but the differences within a regional dialect are supposedly smaller than differences between two regional dialects of the same rank.

“In a number of areas (“linguistic landscapes”) where the dialectal differentiation is essentially even, it is hardly justified to speak of regional dialects. This uniformity has led many linguists to deny the meaningfulness of such a notion altogether; very frequently, however, bundles of isoglosses - or even a single isogloss of major importance - permit the division, of a territory into regional dialects. The public is often aware of such divisions, usually associating them with names of geographic regions or provinces, or with some feature of pronunciation. Especially clear-cut cases of division are those in which geographic isolation has played the principal role”. (№9, p.397)

 

Received Pronunciation.

“The abbreviation RP (Received Pronunciation) denotes the speech of educated people living in London and the southeast of England and of other people elsewhere who speak in this way. If the qualifier ‘educated’ be assumed, RP is then a regional (geographical) dialect, as contrasted with London Cockney, which is a class (social) dialect. RP is not intrinsically superior to other varieties of English; it is itself only one particular regional dialect that has, through the accidents of history, achieved more extensive use than others. Although acquiring its unique status without the aid of any established authority, it may have been fostered by the public schools (Winchester, Eton, Harrow and so on) and the ancient universities (Oxford and Cambridge). Other varieties of English are well preserved in spite of the levelling influences of film, television, and radio”. (№8, p.365)

The ancestral form of RP was well-established over 400 years ago as the accent of the court and the upper classes. The English courtier George Puttenham writing in 1589 thought that the English of nothern men, whether they be noblemen or gentlemen… is not so courtly or so current as our Southern English is.

 

 

The present-day situation.

Today, with the breakdown of rigid divisions between social classes and the development of the mass media, RP is no longer the preserve of a social elite. It is most widely heard on the BBC; but there are also conservative and trend-setting forms.

Early BBC recordings show how much RP has altered over just a few decades, and they make the point that no accent is immune to change, not even “the best”. But the most important fact is that RP is no longer as widely used today as it was 50 years ago. Most educated people have developed an accent which is a mixture of RP and various regional characteristics - “modified RP”, some call it. In some cases, a former RP speaker has been influenced by regional norms; in other cases a former regional speaker has moved in the direction of RP.

 

Who first called it RP?

The British phonetician Daniel Jones was the first to codify the properties of RP. It was not a label he much liked, as he explains in “An Outline of English Phonetics” (1980):

“I do not consider it possible at the present time to regard any special type as “standard” or as intrinsically “better” than other types. Nevertheless, the type described in this book is certainly a useful one. It is based on my own (Southern) speech, and is, as far as I can ascertain, that generally used by those who have been educated at “preparatory” boarding schools and the “Public Schools”… The term “Received Pronunciation”… is often used to designate this type of pronunciation. This term is adopted here for want of a better”. (1960, 9^th edn, p.12)

The historical linguist H.C. Wyld also made much use of the term ‘received’ in “A Short History of English” (1914):

“It is proposed to use the term ‘Received Standard’ for that form which all would probably agree in considering the best that form which has the widest currency and is heard with practically no variation among speakers of the better class all over the country”. (1927, 3^rd edn, p.149)

The previous usage to which Jones refers can be traced back to the dialectologist A.J. Ellis, in “On Early English Pronunciation” (1869):

“In the present day we may, however, recognize a received pronunciation all over the country… It may be especially considered as the educated pronunciation of the metropolis of the court, the pulpit, and the bar”. (p.23)

Even then, there were signs of the future, for he goes on to say:

“But in as much as all these localities and professions are recruited from the provinces, there will be a varied thread of provincial utterance running through the whole”.» (№8, p.365)

 

Social variation.

As for the accents, they refer to the varieties in pronunciation, which convey information about a person’s geographical origin. These varieties are partly explained by social mobility and new patterns of settlement. Distinct groups or social formation within the whole may be set off from each other in a variety of ways: by gender, by age, by class, by ethnic identity. Particular groups will tend to have characteristic ways of using the language-characteristic ways of pronouncing it, - for example - and these will help to mark off the boundaries of one group from another. They belong to different social groups and perform different social roles. A person might be identified as ‘a woman’, ‘a parent’, ‘a child’, ‘a doctor’, or in many other ways. Many people speak with an accent, which shows the influence of their place of work. Any of these identities can have consequences for the kind of language they use. Age, sex, and socio-economic class have been repeatedly shown to be of importance when it comes to explaining the way sounds, constructions, and vocabulary vary.

I think the best example to show it is the famous play “Pygmalion” by Bernard Shaw touched upon social classes, speech and social status of people using different types of accents and dialects. One of the ideas was that it is possible to tell from a person’s speech not only where he comes from but what class he belongs to. But no matter what class a person belongs to, he can easily change his pronunciation depending on what environment he finds himself in. The heroine Liza aired his views, saying: “When a child is brought to a foreign country, it picks up the language in a few weeks, and forgets its own. Well, I am a child in your country. I have forgotten my own language, and can speak nothing but yours.” (№13, p.64).

So some conclusions about the kinds of social phenomena that influence change through contact with other dialects can be made:

a) dialects differ from region through the isolation of groups of speakers;

b) dialects change through contact with other dialects;

c) the upper classes reinforce Standard English and RP through education.

 

The History of Cornish.

Who are the Cornish?

The Cornish are a Celtic people, in ancient times the Westernmost kingdom of the Dumnonii, the people who inhabited all of Cornwall, Devon and West Somerset.

The Cornish are probably the same people who have lived in Cornwall since the introduction of farming around 3000 B.C.. The start of farming in Cornwall may also indicate the start of what some scholars now term ‘proto Indo-European’, from whence the Celtic languages along with the Italic and other related groups of languages began evolving.

 

What is a Celtic Language?

Around 2000 B.C., the group of languages now called Celtic languages started to split away from the other members of the Indo-European group of languages. By 1200 B.C. Celtic civilisation, a heroic culture with its own laws and religion is first known. It is from this period that the first king lists and legends are believed to come.

 

The Decline of Cornish.

Cornish developed pretty much naturally into a modern European language until the 17^th century, after which it came under pressure by the encroachment of English. Factors involved in its decline included the introduction of the English prayer book, the rapid introduction of English as a language of commerce and most particularly the negative stigma associated with what was considered by Cornish people themselves as the language of the poor.

The Rebirth of Cornish.

Cornish died out as a native language in the late 19^th century, with the last Cornish speaker believed to have lived in Penwith. By this time however, Cornish was being revived by Henry Jenner, planting the seeds for the current state of the language and it is supposed that the last native speaker was the fishwoman Dolly Pentreath.

 

Standard Cornish.

Standard Cornish was developed from Jenner’s work by a team under the leadership of Morton Nance, culminating in the first full set of grammars, dictionaries and periodicals. Standard Cornish (Unified) is again being developed through UCR (Unified Cornish Revised), and incorporates most features of Cornish, including allowing for Eastern and Western forms of pronunciation and colloquial and literary forms of Cornish.

 

Who uses Cornish Today?

Today Cornish typically appeals to all age groups and to those either who have an empathy with Cornwall, who have Cornish roots or perhaps have moved to Cornwall from elsewhere. One of the great successes of Cornish today is ifs wide appeal. After a break in native speakers for nearly one hundred years, Cornwall now has many children who now have Cornish as a native language along side English, and many more who are fluent in the language.

 

8. Government Recognition for Cornish.

Cornish is the only modern Celtic language that receives no significant support from government, despite the growing numbers learning Cornish, and the immense good will towards it from ordinary Cornish people and from elsewhere.

This contrasts strongly with the favourable stand taken by the Manx government towards Manx for example, as evidenced by Manx primary school places being made generally available.

Recently, the UK government scrapped the Cornish GCSE. Lack of Cornish language facilities and support is no longer just a language issue, but is rapidly becoming a civil rights and political issue too. Despite the growing support of councillors in Cornwall, some key individuals in County Hall continue to make clear their hostility to the language.

e.g. of the Cornish language:

“Pyw yw an Gernowyon?

Pobel Geltek yw an bobel a Gernow. Yn osow hendasek, an wtas Gorfewenna yn Wtas Dumnonii, neb a dregas yn Kernow, Dewnans ha Gwtas an Haf.

Y hyltyr bos del An Gernowyon a wrug trega yn Kernow hedro an dallath gonys tyr adro 3000 K.C.. An dallath gonys tyr yn Kernow a vo dallath an os ‘proto Yndo-Europek’, dres an tavajow Keltek ha tavajow Ytaiek dallath dhe dhysplegya.”

 

Vocalisation.

Devonshire

Somersetshire

Wiltshire

“a” after “w”

is realized as [a:]: wasp [wa:sp] watch [wa:t∫] want [wa:nt] wander [wa:nd ]

is realized as [æ]:

warm [wærm]

warn [wærn]

wart [wært]

 

“asp”, “ass”, “ast”, “a” → [æ]: grass [græs], glass [glæs], fast [fæst]

“al + a consonant”

  “l” is realized as [a:] or                       [:]: talk [ta:k] walk [wa:k] chalk [t∫a:k] balk [ba:k]

 

a + l, a + ll

in the open syllable “a” → [æ]: crane [kræn] frame [fræm] lame [læm] make [mæk] name [næm]  

in the open syllable

“a” → [æ]:

crane [kræn]

frame [fræm]

lame [læm]

make [mæk]

name [næm]

The first sound is vowel

acre [jakr]

ale [jal]

acorn [’jak∂rn]

hare [hja:r]

ache [jek]

acorn [jek∂rn]

behave [bı’hjev]

“e” in the closed syllables → “a”

Nothern Western

egg [ag], fetch [fat∫], step [stap],

wretch [rat∫], stretch [strat∫]

“e” in the closed syllables → [eı]

Eastern Southern

 

egg [eıg], stretch [streıt∫]

 

“e” in the closed syllables → [e:]

South-Western Western

Middle/Eastern

Leg [le:g], bed [be:d], hedge [he:dz]

 

if “e” follows “w” → [:]

  Western

 

  well [w:l] twelve [tw:lv] wench [w:nt∫]

 

“i” in the closed syllable

North-Western Western

 

→ [e]: big [beg] bid [bed] flitch [fletch] sit [set] spit [spet] → [ ]: bill [b l] little [’l tl] children [’t∫ ldr n] cliff [kl f] hill [h l] drift [dr ft] shrimp [∫r mp] fit [f t] ship [∫ p] pig [p g] fish [f ∫]

 

“ight” → [e]

North-Western Western

 

flight, right

 

if a nasal consonant follows “i”

→ [e]: sing [seŋ] cling [kleŋ]  

→ [e]:

sing [seŋ]

cling [kleŋ]

“i” before “nd”

North-Western  

 

→ [e]: bind [ben] blind [blen] find [ven] grind [gren]  

 

“i” before “ld”

  Eastern

 

  → [i:]: mild [mi:ld] wild [wi:ld] child [t∫ıld]

 

“i” in the open syllable

South-Western Southern

 

→ [eı]: fly [fleı] lie [leı] thigh [θeı] → [eı]: bide [beıd] wide [weıd] time [teım]

 

Eastern  

 

→ [ ı]: fly [fl ı] lie [l ı]  

 

“o” in the closed syllable followed by a consonant

South-Western  

Eastern

→ [a:]: dog [da:g] cross [kra:s]  

→ [ ]:

cot [k t]

bottom [b tm]

dog [d g]

cross [kr s]

   

Western

   

→ [a:]:

dog [da:g]

cross [kra:s]

“o” + a nasal consonant

North-Western Western

Western

→ [æ]: among [∂’mæŋ] long [læŋ] wrong [ræŋ] → [æ]: among [∂’mæŋ] long [læŋ] wrong [ræŋ]

 

among [∂’mæŋ]

long [læŋ]

wrong [ræŋ]

“ol” + a consonant

  Western

Western

  → [u∂]: gold [gv∂ld] old [u∂ld]

→ [u∂]:

gold [gv∂ld]

old [u∂ld]

“o” in the open syllable and “oa”

  Western

 

  → [ ]: bone [b n] broad [br d] rope [r p] load [l d]

 

  “oi”

 

   

→ [aı]:

choice [t∫aıs]

join [dzaın]

moil [maıl]

point [paınt]

spoil [spaıl]

voice [vaıs]

“u” in the closed syllable

Southern  

 

→ [e]: but [bet] dust [dest]  

 

“ou” / ”ow”

   

Easter

   

→ [av]:

low [lav]

owe [au]

“oo”

North-Western Western

Middle/Eastern

→ [ı]: good [gıd] hood [hıd] foot [fıt] blood [blıd] stood [stıd] bloom [blım] broom [brım] moon [mın] loom [lım] → [ö]: book [bök] cook [kök] crook [krök] look [lök] took [tök] good [göd] foot [föt] stood [stöd]  

→ [ ]:

book [b k]

brook [br k]

crook [kr k]

look [l k]

took [t k]

good [g d]

foot [f t]

soot [s t]

flood [fl d]

Eastern  

 

→ [ ]: book [b k] brook [br k] crook [kr k]    

 

 

“i” in the open syllable

South-western Southern

 

→ [eı]: fly [fleı] lie [leı] thigh [θeı] → [eı]: bide [beıd] wide [weıd] time [teım]

 

 

Eastern  

 

→ [ ı]: fly [fl ı] lie [l ı]  

 

“o” in the closed syllable followed by a consonant

South-western  

Eastern

→ [a:]: dog [da:g] cross [kra:s]  

→ [ ]:

cot [k t]

bottom [b tm]

dog [d g]

cross [kr s]

   

Western

   

→ [a:]:

dog [da:g]

cross [kra:s]

Devonshire Somersetshire

Wiltshire

“o” + a nasal consonant

North-western Western

Western

→ [æ]: among [∂’mæŋ], long [læŋ], wrong [wræŋ]

“ol” + a consonant

  Western

Western

 

→ [u∂l]: gold [gv∂ld], old [u∂ld]

“oa”

  Western

 

  → [ ]: bone [b n] broad [br d] rope [r p] load [l d]

 

  “oi”

 

   

→ [aı]:

choice [t∫aıs]

join [dzaın]

moil [maıl]

point [paınt]

spoil [spaıl]

voice [vaıs]

“u” in the closed syllable

Southern  

 

→ [e]: but [bet] dust [dest]  

 

“ou”/“ow”

   

Easter

   

→ [av]:

low [lav]

owe [au]

“oo”

North-Western Western

Middle/Eastern

→ [ı]: good [gıd] hood [hıd] foot [fıt] blood [blıd] stood [stıd] bloom [blım] broom [brım] moon [mın] loom [lım] root [rıt] spoon [spın] → [ö]: book [bök] cook [kök] crook [krök] look [lök] took [tök] good [göd] foot [föt] stood [stöd]  

→ [ ]:

book [b k]

brook [br k]

crook [kr k]

look [l k]

took [t k]

good [g d]

foot [f t]

soot [s t]

flood [fl d]

Eastern  

 

→ [ ]: book [b k] brook [br k] crook [kr k] look [l k]    

 

 

“er”, “ir”, “ur”

  Southern

 

  → [a:]: learn [la:n] earth [a:θ] bird [ba:d] birch [ba:t∫] merchant [’ma:t∫∂nt] herb [ha:b] work [wa:k]

 

“or”

 

→ [a:]: fork [fa:k], horse [ha:s], horn [ha:n], short [∫a:t],

 

       Morning [’ma:nıŋ], word [wa:d]

“ew”

Eastern  

Northern

→ [ü:]: dew [dü:] few [fü:]  

→ [jav]:

dew [djau]

few [fjau]

new [njau]

Consonantism

[w] in the beginning of the word or before “h”

old [w l] oak [w k] hot [w t] home [w m] orchard [wurt∫∂t] hole [hwul] hope [hwup] open [’wupen]  

[w] is not pronounced:

week [ouk]

swick [su:k]

“w” before “r”

is not pronounced Western

is not pronounced

  → [vr]: wreck, wren, wrench, wrap, write, wrong e.g. Ye vratch, ye’ve vrutten that a’vrang. (= You wretch, you’ve written that all wrong.)

 

“wh” at the beginning of a word is [w], [u:], [u∂]

in the middle of a word [w] is pronounced

boy [bwo], moist [mw ıst], toad [twud], cool [kwul], country [’kwıntrı]

“f”, “th”, “s”, “sh” are voiced

Friday [’vræ:dı], friends [vrınz], fleas [vle:z], and in the these words: foe, father, fair, fear, find, fish, foal, full, follow, filth, fist, fire, fond, fault, feast, force, forge, fool.

[θ]: thought [ð:t], thick [ðık], thigh [ðaı], and in the words: from, freeze, fresh, free, friend, frost, frog, froth, flesh, fly flock, flood, fleece, fling, flower, fail.

“t” at the beginning of the word before a vowel

Nothern  

 

→ [t∫]: team [t∫em], tune [t∫un], Tuesday [’t∫uzde] East D “t” in the middle of the word is voiced: bottle [’b dl], kettle [’kedl], little [’lıdl], nettle [’nedl], bottom [’b dm], matter [’med∂], cattle [’k dl], kittens [kıdnz]  

 

“t” in the middle of the word is voiced

   

Western

   

bottle [’b dl],

kettle [’kedl],

little [’lıdl],

nettle [’nedl],

bottom [’b dm],

matter [’med∂],

cattle [’k dl],

kittens [kıdnz]

The consonant [t] in (the French borrowings) hasn’t become [t∫] as it is in RP:

picture [’pıkt∂r], nature [’net∂r], feature [’fı∂t∂r]

the middle [t] sometimes disappears in the positions before “m…l”, “n…l”, “m…r”

  Western

 

  brimstone [’brımsn] empty [’empı] The same happens to the middle [b]: chamber > chimmer, embers > emmers, brambles > brimmels

 

between “l” and “r”; “r” and “l”; “n” and “r” a parasitic [d] has developed

parlour [’pa:ld∂r], tailor [’taıld∂r], smaller [’sm:ld∂r], curls [’ka:dlz], hurl [’a:dl], marl [’ma:dl], quarrel [’kw:dl], world [’wa:dl], corner [’ka:nd∂r]

   

Western

   

a parasitic [d] appeared after [l, n, r]:

feel [fi:ld]

school [sku:ld]

idle [aıdld]

mile [maıdl]

born [ba∂nd]

soul [s:ld]

soon [zu:nd]

gown [gaund]

swoon [zaund]

wine [waınd]

miller [’mıl∂d]

scholar [’sk l∂d]

the middle [d] in the word “needle” comes after [l]: [ni:ld]

  Eastern

 

  In the word “disturb” [b] is pronounced as [v] - [dis, t∂:v]

 

the first [θ] is pronounced as [ð]

thank [ðæŋk] and in other words: thatch, thaw, thigh, thin, thing, think, third, thistle, thong, thought, thousand, thumb, thunder, Thursday

  Sometimes [θ] is pronounced as [t] at the end of the word: lath [lat]

 

   

Western

   

In some words [s] at the beginning of the word is pronounced as [∫]:

suet [∫uıt].

The same happens when [s] is in the middle of the word:

first [fer∫t]

breast [brı∫t]

next [nı∫t]

   

North-West W: [s] is sometimes pronounced as [z]: sure [zu∂r]

“sh”, “sk” at the end of the word

  Western

 

  → [s]: cask [k s] flask [fl s] leash [li:s] tusk [tus] Sometimes instead of [k] [t∫] is heard: back [b t∫] wark [wa:t∫]

 

Eastern

 

believe, deliver, desire, directly, disturb, eleven, enough, except, occasion, inquest, epidemic

the initial “cl”

→ [tl]: clad [tlad], clap, clay, claw, clean, cleave, clergy, clerk, clew, cliff, climb, cling, clip, cloak, close, clot, cloth, cloud, clout

“gl” in the beginning of the word

→ [dl]: glad, glass, glisten, gloom, glove, glow

[l] in the middle of the word isn’t pronounced

  Western

Eastern

 

Already

shoulder [’∫a:d∂r]

   

The Middle/Eastern

   

[l] is often → [ ]:

bill [bı’ ]

tool [tu’ ]

nibble [nı’b ]

milk [mı’ k]

silk [sı’ k]

       

 

Grammar.

Nouns.

The definite article.

- There isn’t the definite article before “same”: ’Tis same’s I always told ’ee”.

- The of-phrase “the… of” is of ten used instead of the possessive pronoun (e.g. “the head of him “instead of” his head”)

The plural form of a noun.

- In many cases -s (es) can be added for several times:

e.g. steps [’steps∂z] (South Som.)

- in some cases [n] is heard at the end of the word:

e.g. keys [ki:n] (Wil.)

       cows [kain] (Dev.)

       bottles [botln] (South-W. Dev.)

       primroses [prımr zn] (Dev.)

- but sometimes [s] is heard in the words ended with “-n”

e.g. oxen [ ksnz] (Western Som.)

  rushes [rıksnz] (Dev.)

- some nouns have the same form in the singular and in the plural:

e.g. chicken - chickens [t∫ık] (Som.)

  pipe - pipes [paıp] (Som.)

- sometimes the plural form of the noun is used insted of the singular form:

a house [auzn] (Southern Wil.)

 

Gender.

The full characteristic of Gender in South-Western English I’d like to base on the part of the article by Paddock. Paddock uses the historical lebel “Wessex” to describe the countries of South-Western England.

 

Numerals.

In south-western dialects the compound numerals (21-99) are pronounced as: five and fifty, six and thirty.

In Devonshire instead of ‘the second’ ‘twoth’ is used (the twenty-twoth of April).

 

Adjectives.

In all dialects of the south-west -er, -est are used in the comparative and superative degrees with one-, two- and more syllabic adjectives:

e.g. the naturaler

  the seasonablest

  delightfuller (-est)

  worser - worsest (Dw.)

- The words: ‘gin’, ‘an’, ‘as’, ‘nor’, ‘till’, ‘by’, ‘to’, ‘in’, ‘on’ are used instead of ‘than’ in the comparative forms:

e.g. When the lad there wasn’t scarce the height of that stool, and a less size on (= than) his brother…;

  That’s better gin naething;

  More brass inney (= than you) hadd’n;

  It’s moor in bargain (= more than a bargain).

- The word ‘many’ is used with uncountable nouns

e.g. many water / milk

- The word ‘first’ is often used in the meaning of ‘the next’:

e.g. The first time I gang to the smiddie I’ll give it to him.

  Will you come Monday first or Monday eight days?

 

Pronouns.

- The forms of the nominative case are often used instead of the forms of the objective case and vice versa:

e.g. Oi don’t think much o’ they (= of them).

  Oi went out a-walkin wi’ she (= with her).

  Oi giv ut t’ he (= it) back again.

  Us (= we) don’t want t’ play wi’ he (= him).

  Har (= she) oon’t speak t’ th’ loikes o’ we (= us).

  When us (= we) is busy, him (= he) comes and does a day’s work for we (= us).

- The pronoun ‘mun’ (‘min’) is used in those cases, when in the literary language ‘them’ is used:

e.g. put mun in the house

gie mun to me

I mind (= remember) the first time I seed mun.

- ‘Mun’ is also used instead of ‘him’, ‘it’

e.g. let min alone

  it would sarve un right if I telled the parson of mun

- Instead of ‘those’, ‘them’ is used:

e.g. I mind none of them things.

Give us them apples.

Fetch them plaates off o’ th’ pantry shelf.

- In the south-western dialects at the beginning of the sentenu the personal and impersonal pronouns are often dropped.

- “Whom” is never used in the south-western dialects. Instead of it ‘as’ / ‘at’ is used:

e.g. That’s the chap as (or what) his uncle was hanged.

  The man’ at his coat’s torn.

- The nominative case of the personal pronouns is also used before ‘selves’:

e.g. we selves (Somerseshire, Devonshire)

- The standard demonstrative pronoun ‘this’ is used in the south-western dialects as: ‘this’, ‘this here’, ‘thease’, ‘thisn’, ‘thisna’.

- The standard demonstrative pronoun ‘that’ is used in the south-western dialects as: ‘thatn’, ‘thickumy’, ‘thilk’:

e.g. I suppose I could have told thee thilk.

- ‘Those’ is never used in the south-western dialects.

“thir’ ans” is used instead of it.

 

Verbs.

- In the south-western dialects in the singular and in the plural in Present Indefinite the ending ‘-s’ or ‘-es’ is used, if the Subject is expressed as

a noun.

e.g. Boys as wants more mun ask.

  The other ehaps works hard.

- In Devonshire ‘-th’ [ð] is added to verbs in the plural in Present Indefinite.

- The form ‘am’ (’m) of the verb ‘to be’ is used after the personal pronouns:

e.g. We (wem = we are) (Somersetshire)

  you, they

- After the words ‘if’, ‘when’, ‘until’, ‘after’ Future Indefinite sometimes used.

- The Perfect form in affirmative sentences, in which the Subject is expressed as a personal pronoun, is usually built without the auxiliary verb ‘have’:

e.g. We done it.

     I seen him.

  They been and taken it.

- The negation in the south-western dialects is expressed with the adding of the negative particle ‘not’ in the form ‘-na’ to the verb.

e.g. comesna (comes not)

winna (= will not)

sanna (= shall not)

canna (= cannot)

maunna (= must not)

sudna (= should not)

dinna (= do not)

binna (= be not)

haena (= have not)

daurna (= dare not)

- It is typical to the south-western dialects to use too many nigotiations in the same phrase:

e.g. I yin’t seen nobody nowheres.

I don’t want to have nothing at all to say to you.

I didn’t mean no harm.

Ye’ll better jist nae detain me nae langer.

- The negative and interrogative forms of the modal verbs are built with the help of the auxiliary verb ‘do’.

e.g. He did not ought to do it.

You do not ought to hear it.

- Some verbs which are regular in the Standard language become irregular in the south-western dialects:

e.g. dive - dave, help - holp

- Sometimes the ending ‘-ed’ is added to some irregular verbs in the Past Simple:

e.g. bear - borned, begin - begunned, break - broked, climb - clombed,                  

dig - dugged, dive - doved, drive - droved, fall - felled, find -   

funded, fly - flewed, give - gaved, grip - grapped, hang - hunged,

help - holped, hold - helded, know - knewed, rise - rosed, see -

sawed, shake - shooked, shear - shored, sing - sunged, sink -

sunked, spin - spunned, spring - sprunged, steal - stoled, strive -

stroved, swear - swored, swim - swammed, take - tooked, tear -

tored, wear - wored, weave - woved, write - wroted.

- But some irregular verbs in the Past Simple Tense are used as regular:

e.g. begin - beginned (Western Som., Dev.)

  bite - bited (W. Som.)

  blow - blowed (Dev.)

  drink - drinked (W. Som.)

  drive - drived (Dev.)

  fall - falled (W. Som., Dev.)

  fight - fighted (W. Som.)

  fall - falled (Som., Dev.)

  go - gade (Dev.)

  grow - growed (W. Som.)

  hang - hanged (W. Som.)

  lose - losed (W. Som., Dev.)

  ring - ringed (W. Som.)

  speak - speaked (Som.)

  spring - springed (W. Som., Dev.)

- Many verbs form the Past Participle with the help of the ending ‘-n’.

e.g. call - callen

  catch - catchen

  come - comen

- In some cases in the Past Participle a vowel in the root is changed, and the suffix is not added.

e.g. catch - [k t∫]

  hit - [a:t]

  lead - [la:d]

- In the south-western dialects intransitive verbs have the ending ‘-y’ [ı].

- In Western Somersetshire before the infinitive in the function of the adverbial modifier of purpose ‘for’ is used:

e.g. Hast gotten a bit for mend it with? (= Have you got anything to mend it with?)

 

Adverbs.

- In the south-western dialects an adjective is used instead of the adverb.

e.g. You might easy fall.

- To build the comparative degree ‘far’ is used instead of ‘further’; ‘laster’ instead of ‘more lately’.

- The suparative degree: ‘farest’; ‘lastest’; ‘likerest’; ‘rathest’.

a) The adverbs of place:

abeigh [∂bıx] - ‘at some distance’

abune, aboon - ‘above’

ablow - ‘under’

ben, benn - ‘inside’

outbye [utbaı] - ‘outside’

aboot - ‘around’

hine, hine awa - ‘far’

ewest - ‘near’

b) The adverbs of the mode of action:

hoo, foo - ‘how’

weel - ‘great’

richt - ‘right’

ither - ‘yet’

sae - ‘so’

c) The adverbs of degree:

much

e.g. How are you today? - Not much, thank you.

‘much’ is also used in the meaning of ‘wonderfully’

  e.g. It is much you boys can’t let alone they there ducks.

         It was much he hadn’t a been a killed.

rising

‘rising’ is often used in the meaning of ‘nearly’

e.g. How old is the boy? - He’s rising five.

- ‘fell’, ‘unco’, ‘gey’, ‘huge’, ‘fu’, ‘rael’ are used in the meaning of ‘very’.

- ower, owre [aur] - ‘too’

- maist - ‘nearly’

- clean - ‘at all’

- that - ‘so’

- feckly - ‘in many cases’

- freely - ‘fully’

- naarhan, nighhan - ‘nearly’

- han, fair - ‘at all’

d) Adverbs of time:

whan, fan - ‘when’

belive, belyve - ‘now’

      yinst - ‘at once’

neist - ‘then’

fernyear - ‘last year’

afore (= before)

e.g. Us can wait avore you be ready, sir.

next - ‘in some time’

e.g. next day = the day after tomorrow

while = till, if

e.g. You’ll never make any progress while you listen to me.

  You have to wait while Saturday.

VERBAL NOUN

My own a-decken ov myown (‘my own way of dressing my darling’).

This is the same usageas in Standard English he doesn’t like my driving of hiscar.

GERUND

 That wer vor hetten o’n (‘that was for hitting him’).

... little chance/O’ catchen o’n.

I be never the better vor zee-en o’ you.

The addition of o’ to a gerund is optional: Vor grinden any corn vor bread is similar to Standard English.

PROGRESSIVE ASPECT

As I wer readen ov a stwone (about a headstone).

Rogers gives two examples of the progressive aspect:

I be stackin’ on ‘em up.

I were a-peeling of the potatoes (with a different spelling).

Vocabulary.

Devonshire (Dev)

Somersetshire (Som)

Wiltshire (Wil)

Cornwall (Cor)

A

Abroad - adj растерянный, незнающий, как поступить; попавший впросак, совершивший ошибку; разваренный, расплавленный (о пище): The potatoes are abroad. The sugar is gone abroad.

Addle, Udall, Odal (Dev) - v зарабатывать, сберегать, откладывать, экономить; (о растениях) расти, расцветать [gu. oðla, возвр. oðlask - приобретать (имущество), oðal - имущество]

Ail (Wil, Dev) - n ость (колоса)

Aller (Dev) - n нарыв, карбункул; тяжелый ожог: Suke died acause her aller wanted letting.

Answer (Som) - v выносить, переносить (те или иные условия, определенные события); выжить: That there poplar ’ont never answer out of doors, t’ll be a ratted in no time; ~ to: реагировать на что-либо, поддаваться воздействию чего-либо: Clay land easily answers to bones.

Any (повсеместно) - adj, adv, pron: any bit like - хороший, сносный, приличный (о здоровье, погоде, поведении): I’ll come and see thee tomorrow if it’s only any-bit-like; any more than - только; если бы: He’s sure to come any more than he might be a bit late. I should be sure to go to school any more than I’ve not got a gownd to my back.

Attle (Cor) - n мусор, отбросы

B

Bach, Batch, Bage (Som) - n река, ручей; долина, через которую протекает ручей; овраг; насыпь или холм, находящиеся вблизи реки

Bad (Wil) - n внешняя земная оболочка ореха

Badge (Wil) - v заниматься перепродажей зерна, овощей и фруктов

Balch (Dev, Cor) - n небольшая веревка, кушак

Bam (Cor) - n шутка, проделка, номер: It’s nowt but a bam.

    (Wil, Som) - n портянка, грубая материя, оборачиваемая вокруг ноги

Ban (Som) - v проклинать; ругаться

Bannock (Wil, Som, Dev) - n блин / лепешка из овсянной или ячменной муки

Barge (Dev) - n боров; v ругать, оскорблять

Barney (Som) - n ссора, перебранка; чепуха; ошибка; плохо выполненная работа, халтура

Barton (Wil, Dev, Som, Cor) - n крестьянский двор; подсобные помещения в задней части крестьянского двора; крестьянский дом

Barvel (Cor) - n короткий кожаный передник, надеваемый при мытье полов; кожаный передник рыбаков

Bate (Som, Dev) - n плохое настроение, раздраженное состояние; v ссориться, ругаться

Beagle, Bogle (Dev) - n пугало; привидение; гротескно одетый человек, «ряженый»

Beet, Boot (Cor) - v чинить, ремонтировать, помогать; удовлетворять

Besgan, Biscan, Vescan (Cor) - n кожаный напальчник; матерчатая повязка

Big (Som, Cor) - adj дружественный, близкий: Smith and Brown are very big; v строить; v (с up) утверждать, поддержать (в мнении); быть преданным, верным (человеку или идее)

Bogzom (Dev) - adj ярко-красный; румяный: Ya ha made ma chucks bugzom.

Bribe (Wil) - v приставать, издеваться; ругать, «пилить»: She terrible bribed I.

Brindled (Som) - ppl adj пестрый, полосатый

Bruick-boil (Dev) - v вянуть; становиться сухой (о погоде)

Bunt (Som, Dev, Cor) - n сито; v просеивать муку

    (Wil) - n вязанка хвороста

Buss, boss (Wil, Dev, Cor) - n теленок

But (Som) - n пики (в картах)

  (Cor) - v вывихнуть (сустав): I’ve butted my thumb.

C

Cab (Som, Dev, Cor) - n липкая масса, что-либо грязное, мокрое или липкое (adj cabby); v воровать

Cad (Som) - n самые мелкие и молодые особи (поросят, телят и др.); pl мелкий картофель; падаль, гнилое мясо

Call (Som) - v думать, считать

Cam (Cor) - n глинистый сланец; adj изогнутый; упрямый

Casar (Dev, Cor) - n сито; v просеивать

Caw (Dev) - v дышать с трудом; n дурак

Cawk (Som) - v пороть, бить

Chack (Dev, Cor) - adj ppl chackt, chacking - испытывающий жажду; голодный

Cheap (Som) - adj фразеол. be cheap on - вполне заслуживающий чего-либо

Chill (Dev, Som) - v немного подогреть (жидкость); chilled water - теплая вода

Chilver (Wil, Som) - n ягненок

Chissom (Wil, Som, Dev) - n отросток, побег (растения); v давать отростки, побеги

Chuck (Som, Dev) - n нижняя часть лица, шея, глотка

Clib (Dev, Cor) - v прилипать; увлажнять, смачивать

Clivan, Clevant, Callyvan, Vant (Som) - n лову