The First Americans. A Brief History

 

By Carmel Underwood and Robert Underwood

 

Thousand of years ago, a land mass connected Asia and North America between what is now known as the Bering Strait, joining Siberia to Alaska. Animals crossed this land bridge, and hunters, probably travelling in small bands, followed them. Descendants of these hunters, the original inhabitants of the Americas, later developed into the great nations and cultures of the First Americans. Some groups followed down the coast through present day Alaska, Canada, California, and Central America, and on to the southern tip of South America. Some time between 11,000 and 18,000 BC both North and South America were peopled by what we in the United States now call native Americans, or American Indians.

Eventually, many groups of First Americans tired of chasing the migrating herds of animals and settled in desirable locations throughout the American continent. They built cities, cultivated and grew crops such as beans, corn, potatoes, squash, and tobacco, and formed tribes that shared beliefs, values, and laws. In what is now the United States, diverse cultures evolved and thrived, often as a result of location, climate, and environment. The natural resources of the Americas – the forest, waterways, planes, and mountains – were not only vital to the early Americans’ existence but also greatly influenced their cultures and languages. Religious beliefs and the ceremonies that sprang from them were often derived from nature, and they played a key role in daily life. And people strove to live in piece with
nature. There was enough space, air, water, natural food and shelter for
everyone.

 

Tекст 2

Environmental Pollution

Big cities – big problems

Environmental pollution is a term that refers to all the ways that human activity harms the natural environment.

Environmental pollution is one of the most serious problems facing humanity and other life forms today.

 

Specific forms of environmental pollution in big cities are as follows:

· environmental pollution in the form of an open garbage dump of a factory pouring out black smoke;

· noise from traffic and machinery;

· pollutants reducing the capacity of the atmosphere to filter out the sun’s harmful ultraviolet radiation;

· automobiles providing the convenience of personal transportation, but creating a large percentage of the city’s pollutions;

· factories making products that people use and enjoy which industrial processes can also pollute;

· pesticides and fertilisers aiding in growing city parks;

· rains washing some harmful chemicals in the city smoke out of the sky and onto land or into waterways.

However, pollution can be reduced in many ways without seriously disrupting people’s lives. For example, city government can pass laws that encourage plants and businesses to adopt less polluting methods of operation.

Scientists and engineers can develop products and processes that are cleaner and safer for the environment.

And individuals around the world can find their own ways to reduce environmental pollution.

PS. To end or greatly reduce pollution, people would have to reduce use of cars and other modern conveniences, and some factories would have to close or change production methods. Many people’s jobs dependent on industries that contribute to environmental pollution would be shut down, which increases unemployment. Do we have a choice? Any ideas? Speak out, please.

 

Задание 2. Прочитайте текст 3. Объясните значение терминов «Environmetalism» «Environmentalists». Найдите соответствия терминам в русском языке. Переведите текст и напишите краткое резюме, выразите свое отношение к экологической ситуации в мире и предложите свои варианты ее решения.

 

Impact of Environmentalism on Marketing Decision Making

Environmentalism is an organized movement of concerned citizens and government to protect and enhance people’s living environment. Environmentalists are concerned with strip mining, forest depletion, factory smoke, billboards, and litter; with the loss of recreational opportunities; and with the increase in health problems caused by bad water, air, and chemically sprayed food.

Environmentalists are not against marketing and consumption; they simply want businesses and consumers to operate on more ecological principles; They think the goal of the marketing system should be to maximize life quality. And life quality means not only the quantity and quality of consumer goods and services but also the quality of the environment.

Environmentalists want environmental costs factored into producer and consumer decision making. They favour taxes and regulations to limit the social costs of antienvironmental behavior, requiring businesses to invest in antipollution devices, taxing nonreturnable bottles, and banning high-phosphate detergents are viewed as necessary to induce businesses and consumers to act in environmentally sound ways.

Environmentalism has hit certain industries hard. Steel companies and public utilities have had to invest billions of dollars in pollution-control equipment and costlier fuels. The auto industry has had to introduce expensive emission controls in cars. The soap industry has had to increase biodegradability in its products. The gasoline industry has had to formulate low-lead and no-lead gasolines. These industries resent environmental regulations, especially when imposed too rapidly to allow the companies to make the proper adjustments. These companies have absorbed large costs and have passed them on to customers.

Companies have questioned how many people are willing to pay more for “green” products. A 2005 Simmons report shows U.S. consumers falling into four groups.

1. Premium greens (22%): higher income, recycling regularly, willing to pay green premiums

2. Red, white and green(20%): similar to premium greens but lower willingness to pay green premiums

3. Ecologists (28%):limited resources, believe in recycling but do not practice it

4. Convenient greens (11%): lower-income group, some will pay for green solutions if convenient

5. Unconcerned (19%): low-income group, least informed about environment

This demonstrates that there are significant consumer groups who are willing to support green products and initiatives.

 

Задание 3. Прочитайте тексты 4 и 5. Это истории двух городов, расскажите о своем городе и его проблемах.

 

Текст 4

History of New York City

 

New York is arguably the businesses, entertainment, and publishing, capital of the world. It is always busy and bustling (шумный, суетливый). It’s the city that most people think about when they think of the United States.

Much of New York City is devoted to parks, museums, art galleries, playgrounds and theaters, which entertain its visitors and residents 365 days a year. There are 23 million people per square mile.

In 1609, Henry Hudson sailed up what we now know as the Hudson River. He went as far as Albany. In 1613, Adrian Block erected four trading houses, prompting permanent settlement. Governor Peter Minuit is said to have bought Manhattan Island in 1626 from indigenous – people for $ 24 worth of beads and trinkets (бисерины и безделушки). In 1633, the first church was built, and was soon followed by Fort Amsterdam. By 1653, the population of “New Amsterdam” was 800. Great Britain had previously claimed the Hudson River country and in 1664, the Duke of Yourk sent a fleet to seize it from the Dutch. The colony became an English possession without bloodshed and was renamed “New York”. In 1783 the city was under English control. Congress met in 1785-90 and it was in New York that Washington was inaugurated as President. New York City is composed of five boroughs – the Bronx, Brooklyn, Manhattan, Aweens and Richmond. Manhattan is the oldest and the smallest of the five boroughs.

“The Big Apple’ reference to New City was first used in 1909 by Martin Wayfarer. He explained the metaphor as follows: “New York was merely one of the fruits of that great tree whose roots go down in the Mississippi Valley, and whose branches spread from one ocean to the other … (but) the big apple gets a disproportionate share of the national sap”.

 

Текст 5

History of Novosibirsk

 

The city of Novosibirsk appeared in 1893 in the place of the three settlements – the Krivoshchekovo settlement, the Novaya village and the settlement of Alexandrovsky. Since 1893 it is called Novo - Nikolaevsk and since 12 February 1926 it was renamed into Novosibirsk. Since 1930 it was the “capital” of the West Siberia territory. On September 28, 1937 with the establishment of the Novosibirsk region the city became its administrative center.

An advantageous location on the crossroad of the major transport routes promoted a rapid growth of the city population and in the early 60-ties it achieved the level of a million. The Russians make around 93% of the city population, the rest are represented mostly by the Ukrainias, the Germans and the Tartars. The city is divided into 10 administrative districts (name them).

Novosibirsk is one of the largest industrial centers of Russia. The unique industrial enterprises like the Chkalov aircraft enterprise, the tin factory, the Sibselmash farm machinery plant, the plant of chemical concentrates, the metallurgical plant, the plant of low-voltage equipment, the steel structures plant, the radio details plant, the railway point plant, the electric locomotive repair plant and many others.

Novosibirsk is also one of the largest transport centers. The Trans –Siberia railway and the railroads to Altai, Kuzbass, Kazakhstan and the Middle Asia, the federal highway Baikal and Novosibirsk –Tashanta also pass through Novosibirsk. Tolmachevo airport serves the international and internal air routes.

Novosibirsk is a unique educational center. In the city there are over 240 schools, 6 lycees, 35 technical schools, 40 technical colleges and 18 higher educational establishments. The Novosibirsk Research center of the Siberian Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences and the branches of the Academy of Agriculture, the Academy of Medical Sciences and the Academy of Architecture, the Center of Biotechnological Research.

There is an excellent culture infrastructure for the Novosibirsk guests and dwellers – 8 professional theatres, a circus, 67 clubs, 109 libraries, the museum of regional studies and the picture gallery. As much as 39 historical memorials, 10 archaeological and 170 architectural monuments.

Wonders of the World

Задание 4. Прочитайте тексты и найдите для каждого текста в списке 1 отсутствующие названия. Расскажите об этих чудесах, включая два упомянутых, но не представленных в тексте.

The Mausoleum at Halicarnassus	The Colossus of Phodes
The Parthenon	The Statue of Zeus at Olympia
The Pyramids	The Temple of Artemis at Ephesus
The Hanging Gardens of Babylon	The Pharos of Alexandria

 

A. The ________ crumbled into the sea about 600 years ago but before that it was one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World. It is not known who built the Pharos (маяк) but we do know that it was the last Wonder to be built, in 280BC. In ancient times it was a great help ships trying to get through the rocky harbour entrance. Yet it was not a lighthouse in the modern sense, but rather a giant advertisement for Alexandria. The remains of the Pharos were found quite recently. The word pharos is still used in some modern languages to mean “lamp” or “lighthouse”.

B. An early historian described the __________ at Ephesus as the greatest of the Seven Wonders. The remains of the building – few stones near modern Efes – suggest that the writer was exaggerating. The temple was large, rich, and beautifully decorated, but there were many temples in the ancient world which were much more beautiful. Its power was due to the fact that Artemis was a goddess worshipped all over Asia. In Rome she was called Diana. The first temples on that site go back to the eighth century BC and many visitors to the temple were important for trade.

C. According to tradition, the___________ stood – legs apart – over the harbour at Rhodes and the ships passed in and out between its legs. The Colossus attracted ships to Rhodes because, like the Pharos at Alexandria, it was a giant advertisement for the city. It could be seen from miles away. The Statue was build between 294 and 282 BC, to celebrate the defeat of the Macedonians, who had failed to conquer the city. When the statue was pulled down in 654 AD, 900 camels were used to take away the pieces.

D. The__________ has left no remains. We know what it looked like because it was shown on coins and travelers said it was made of gold and ivory. It was build to celebrate the Olympic Games, and stood for 1000 years before it was destroyed in a fire in the fifth century AD. The Sculptor was the famous Phidias who made some of the finest statues on the Parthenon.

E. The_________ was named after the man it was built for: Mausolus, the ruler of Caria. Ancient writers say that Mausolus's wife had a tomb built after his death in 353BC. During his lifetime, mausolus filled his capital city, Hali, with impressive buildings. His Tomb made impression on anyone who saw it. By Roman time, 400 years later, the word mausoleum was used to describe any large tomb. Today only a few fragments of the Mausoleum remain.

Задание 5. Используйте информацию текстов А – Е. Некоторые тексты можно использовать более двух раз.

In which of the texts does it say the monument:

1. was built by a well-known artist?

2. was not built for a god or goddess?

3. was built after all the others?

4. was built to make money for the city?

5. was connected with sports?

6. has remains which can still be seen today?

7. was the idea of a woman?

8. attracted people for religious purposes?

9. could be seen from away?

Задание 6. Прочитайте текст. Сделайте устное сообщение о географическом положении, климате, природных ресурсах и экономике страны.

GREAT BRITAIN

Great Britain is formed from the following parts: England, Wales, Scotland and Northern Ireland and is situated on the British Isles which lie to the west of the continent of Europe. Great Britain is separated from the European continent by the North Sea and the English Channel. It is washed on the western coast by the Atlantic Ocean and by the Irish Sea, the latter separating England from Ireland»

Great Britain being an island, its climate is rather mild. Thus the weather, which is greatly influenced by the cool wind that blows from the sea, is cooler in summer and warmer in winter than in most other countries of Northern Europe. There is not a single point in Great Britain, which is more than 120 kilometers away from the sea.

There are many rivers in Britain, the Thames, the Mer­sey, the Aires and others but none of them are very long. Many of the rivers are joined by canals, so that it is quite possible to travel by water from one end of England to the other.

Great Britain is one of the most densely populated countries in the world, the average density being over 200 people per square kilometers, 80 per cent of the popula­tion live in towns. The population of Great Britain is more than 56 million.

England is one of the most powerful capitalist countries In Europe. There are many big industrial cities here, such as Birmingham, Manchester, Liverpool, Cardiff, Sheffield and many others. London, its capital, which is situated on the river Thames, is one of the biggest commercial centers of the world.

One of the leading industries of Great Britain is the textile industry. Coal, iron and steel as well as various machines are also produced there. Shipbuilding and motor industries are highly developed too.

Northern and Western England is a coal, metal and textile country. The most ancient centers of English iron and steel industry are Birmingham and Sheffield. Iron smelting based on local ore deposits has been practiced here since ancient times. In the period of England's industriali­sation Birmingham and Sheffield played the leading role in the creation of England's heavy industry.

Each of the two towns became the centre of various industries. Especially great is the variety of industries in Birmingham. One can find any type of production here, from steel smelting to manufacturing the most delicate articles. Various machinery, railway cars, motorcars, electrical equipment, scientific instruments and many other things are produced in Birmingham in great quanti­ties. Alongside with the most modern big plants, a lot of old small enterprises are to be found in this town.

Sheffield is the city of steel. It has specialized in producing high-quality steel and articles of steel, heavy armaments, wheels of railway cars, weaving looms, knives, fine instruments, etc.

The main centers of the textile region are Liverpool and Manchester.

Manchester is the chief cotton-manufacturing city sur­rounded by a number of towns. Every town has specialized in producing certain kinds of yarn and fabrics. Plants pro­ducing textile machinery not only satisfy the needs of British industry but also export great quantities of machin­ery to the other countries.

Liverpool is the principal port of Western England. It stands on the river Mersey. It is first in Great Britain in exports and it comes second after London in imports. Imports passing through Liverpool consist of cotton, wool, non-ferrous metals and oil; exports consist of fabrics, yarn, textile machinery, electrical equipment and chemicals.

CLIMATE IN ENGLAND

In England it is never too hot or too cold. This is be­cause of the sea which keeps the island warm in winter and makes the air cool in summer.

The weather in England changes very often. They never have the same kind of weather for a long time.

In spring the weather is generally mild but sometimes they have really cool days. In summer it is not so hot as on the continent. In winter they have all sorts of weather. Sometimes it rains and sometimes it snows. In England it is never so cold in winter as on the continent; the rivers and lakes are seldom covered with ice.

Тема: Наука и техника, Выдающиеся ученые и их вклад в развитие науки
и исследований

Задание 1. Прочитайте информацию о российских лауреатах Нобелевской премии. Ответьте на вопросы:

1 What do you know about the Nobel Prize?

2 Can you think of any winners? What work did these people win the prize for?

3. Are these statements true (T) or false (F)?

– The Nobel Prize is awarded annually.

– Ilya Mechnikov is the only Russian who has won the Nobel Prize for medicine.

– Pavlov's work promoted the development of psychology.

– Pyotr Kapitza was the only physicist to be awarded the Nobel Prize in 1978.

– The Nobel Peace Prize has been awarded annually since 1901.

– Two Russians have been awarded the Nobel Peace Prize.

Задание 2. Закончите предложения одним из слов, представленных ниже. Каждое слово можно использовать только один раз.

 

shared awarded followed became won

 

¨ Russian writer Ivan Bunin wrote The Gentleman from San Francisco, which_____him a Nobel Prize in 1933.

¨ In 1964, Russian physicists Nikolay Basov and Alexander Prokhorov_____the Nobel Prize in Physics with Charles Townes of the USA.

¨ Many of Alexander Solzhenitsyn's works are autobiographical; he was_____the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1970.

¨ Nikolay Semyonov made a great contribution to the study of chemical chain reactions, and in 1956 he _____ the first Russian to gain the Nobel Prize for Chemistry.

¨ Russian poet and novelist, Boris Pasternak, is also known for his translations of Shakespeare's tragedies; in 1957 he wrote the novel Doctor Zhivago, which was_____by a Nobel Prize.

Задание 3. Работа в группе. Вы собираетесь учредить новую премию. Решите:

• what the prize is for

• who you want to nominate

Задание 4. Выберите одного Российского лауреата Нобелевской премии и одного зарубежного лауреата Нобелевской премии и напишите 120-150 слов о них. Включите следующую информацию:

Who were they?

When did they win the Nobel Prize?

What work did they win the Nobel Prize for?

Образец текста:

Russian Nobel prizewinners

 

Every year, six Nobel prizes are awarded for outstanding work in science, literature, economics and the promotion of peace. This international prize was founded by the Swedish scientist Alfred Nobel, who invented dynamite and built up companies and laboratories in countries all over the world.

Many Russians have been nominated for the Nobel Prize since it started in 1901 and 19 of them have received the Nobel Prize for their outstanding contributions, particularly in the field of physics, but also in other areas.

The first Russian Nobel winner for medicine (1904) was Ivan Pavlov. He made many remarkable discoveries about blood circulation and the central nervous system and he discovered the conditioned reflex through his research on the digestive system. His experiments on dogs had a great impact on behavioral psychology.

Mikhail Sholokhov, the outstanding 20th century Russian writer, wrote and published a number of short stories while completing his most famous work “And Quiet Flows the Don”, which took him fourteen years to finish. He was awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1965.

In 1978, Russian physicist Pyotr Kapitsa shared the Nobel Prize in Physics for his work on magnetism and low-temperature physics. He founded the Institute for Physical Problems in Moscow, and be was the oldest scientist ever to win the award.

The Nobel Peace Prize has been awarded over the years to individuals and organizations that work actively for peace and greater understanding. It was suspended during both World Wars. But it has been awarded to Russian physicist and civil rights campaigner Andrei Sakharov (1975) and to Soviet President Mikhail Gorbachev (1990).

Задание 5. Прочитайте интервью с известным ученым Стивеном Кейси. Найдите информацию о разных ошибках, которые, все-таки, имеют место по вине ученых и тех, кто воплощает их идеи. Приведите примеры таких ошибок и их последствий. какую роль в этой связи играет человеческий фактор? Напишите эссе на тему: «Когда наука – зло, а когда – добро»

Author Interview