Explain theoretical fundamentals of industrial ecology

Optical methods

These methods are based on interaction of eletromagnetic radiations with matter. Spectroscopic methods are most commonly used in environmental monitoring.

Various organic and inorganic pollutants can form coloured complex with suitable reagents. Such species can be detected and estimated using spectophotometer. For example Cr (VI) is toxic metal which is present in tannery effluents, can be estimated using diphenyl carbazide reagent. Ni (II) which is used as a catalyst is also toxic and can form coloured complex with DMG. (Dimethyl glyoxime) phenols present in the effluents of organic or pharmaceutical companies can be estimated using ferric ion solution. Phenols are common pollutants in waste water discharged from various industries especially from coke oven, coal, gasification and coal tar plants.

Petrolium refineries and synthetic resin and dye manufacturing units (Sharma and Kaur, 1994). They are determined to water for they creates bitter taste and undesirable odour even at low concentration. Moreover, they are harmful to mankind and other organism causing pain, renal irritation, severe shock and possibly death at higher concentration (Dey, 2002).

Relatively non toxic Fe (II) can be estimated using 1,10 phenonthrolin, pesticide residue are vary harmful and can be extracted by using suitable solvent and estimated using U.V. or I.R. spectrophotometry (Meshram et al., 2002).

Chemiluminescence occurs after excitation of a molecule or ion by the energy emitted during a chemical or biochemical reaction, in which the excited species is a product. In many cases the chemically excited energetic level of a molecule is identical to the energetic level that could have been attained by absorption of electromagnetic radiation. In some molecules, however the excited levels are not identical. Chmillimine scence can occur in the ultraviolet, visible or near- infrared region.

15.Write the methods of environmental protection. Under the method of protection refers to a set of technological, technical measures aimed at the reduction or complete elimination of pollution of the biosphere.

All methods are divided into:

- Active - directly affect the sources of pollution.

- Passive - are protective in nature, these methods are not related to the source of the contamination is formed methods of dealing with pollution.

Specifications are divided into the following methods:

- Direct methods - allow us to estimate the mass, volume, density and level of contamination directly in their sources of education.

- Indirect methods - minimize or eliminate the formation of harmful substances in the following environmental conditions.

These technical methods are called to perform tasks such as: replacement of toxic wastes non-toxic, recyclable waste exchange is not recyclable and creating low-waste technologies.

1. Ways to create a low-waste technologies.

Low-waste technology - an intermediate step before creating waste-free technology, which implies an approximation of the process to a closed cycle. When low-waste technology harmful effects on the environment does not exceed the level allowed by health authorities. Part of raw materials still become waste and is subject to long-term storage or disposal. And so, the need for the creation of low-waste technologies:

1) Creation of compact systems that allow maximum use of all the ingredients of raw materials and ensuring the MPC (maximum permissible concentration) emissions into the atmosphere and hydrosphere.

2) Create flowcharts with complete water circuit, allowing the company to reduce the need to clean natural water. Thereby preserving our natural water supplies are clean and intact. As we all you know - the water for us and our entire planet is a precious substance. Without that, our life in the future is not possible.

3) Create a power technology circuits with heat recovery, which resulted in some businesses to become energy producers.

4) Technological regimes, providing a range of products that can be used in the longer term.

It is worth noting, and passive methods, without which the idea of ​​the creation of low-waste technology solved a greater share of the meaning:

1) Rational allocation of pollution sources. It assumes territorial rational distribution of economic facilities, reducing the burden on the environment.

2) Localization of sources of pollution. Localization is achieved by using a variety of environmental technologies, technical systems and devices.

3) Clean emissions into the biosphere. For example: Air emissions containing harmful substances in vapor or aerosol form, to be cleaned without fail.

2. Rational allocation of pollution sources.

Sources of pollution are placed on land unsuitable for use with the / x based on the benefits of wind or the wind rose and the possible occurrence of inversions. Place for wastewater discharge can be located downstream of the river below the residential area, taking into account the reverse flow when pressure winds.

Locating the source of contamination involves the isolation and containment and sealing material source of pollution, shielding and absorption of energy pollution, dumping of waste. And so, because of all the above, we can note the following important points that are needed to achieve the rational distribution of the source of pollution:

1) The best choice of location for the construction of industrial facilities.

2) rational allocation of production in the plant.

3) A device for the purpose of high stacks dispersion of harmful substances into the atmosphere.

4) Establish the boundaries of sanitary protection zones.

16. Monitoring (prevention, tracking any objects or phenomena). In relation to the ecology purposes - supervision and the forecast of a condition of environment, an assessment of her changes under the influence of different types of activity of the person. The obtained information is used for an exception or reduction of probability of emergence of adverse ecological situations, protection of the natural and created by the person objects, preservation of the environment, health and wellbeing of people.

Distinguish several types of monitorings.

On influence scales monitoring happens spatial and temporary. On a territorial sign allocate local, regional, impaktny, basic (background), national and global (biospheric) monitoring. By the used methods - space, aviation, land. By methods of researches - chemical, physical, biological and others. Local monitoring usually belongs to separate objects, most often subject any intensive anthropogenous loadings. It can be forest, water, mountain and other objects. Regional monitoring covers areas, considerable on the area, which, as a rule, differ from next on an environment (for example, natural zones, landscape complexes, recreational territories around the cities, etc.). Impaktny monitoring - monitoring of regional and local anthropogenous influences in especially dangerous zones and places.

National monitoring is carried out in scales of the certain country. Basic (background) monitoring - supervision over the all-biospheric phenomena without imposing on them anthropogenous influences. Global (biospheric) monitoring sets as the purpose obtaining information on the biosphere in general or about separate biospheric processes (climate change, change of chemism of the atmosphere, supervision over the ozone screen, etc.).

For global monitoring are widely used space supervision. The last are usually supplemented with land researches, for example, in biospheric reserves. Supervision from space give the chance to make idea of separate changes in the biosphere which at other methods don't come to light. Aviation supervision unlike space are, as a rule, focused on the regional or local phenomena. Are most often observed separate objects, for example, forest. Inventory of the woods is made with a certain frequency which depends on the purposes, for example, in 3-5 years at the accounting of forest resources and is more frequent at identification of the areas struck with wreckers, the fires or industrial emissions. Land monitoring is carried out for specification of the data obtained from space or aviation devices, and secondly for supervision which can't be executed by other methods: for example, definition of chemical or physical characteristics of a ground layer of air and soils, vegetation or waters. At land monitoring widely use biological methods of supervision. The last use as for direct supervision over a condition of objects, and through use naikboly types, sensitive to separate influences. Such types are called bioindicators.

As bioindicators lichens are widely used, and the method carries the name a likhenoindikation. High sensitivity of lichens to various pollution is connected with the fact that they absorb substances from the environment all over (as spongy material and with the minimum selectivity). For this reason, and also because of the slowed-down metabolism lichens, accumulating harmful substances, get poisoned and perish.

Except lichens, the sensitive indicator are the coniferous trees differing in high responsiveness on pollution (a pine, a fir-tree, a fir).

17. In many areas of the Republic of Kazakhstan, the environmental situation is deteriorating. The growth of industry, energy, transport and agriculture leads to a systematic increase in anthropogenic emissions into the environment. In significant areas, land is contaminated with chemicals and other substances and compounds, cluttering land with production and consumption wastes. The most characteristic is the contamination of land for territories adjacent to industrial enterprises, motor roads and oil pipelines. And at the present time, the Republic of Kazakhstan is still one of the countries of the world with the most difficult ecological situation, with acute environmental problems in the Republic of Kazakhstan. The current state of the environment is a consequence of the decades-long policy of an extensive approach to the development of productive forces and the exploitation of natural resources, while ignoring regional environmental problems. Transformation of the economy of Kazakhstan on market principles with the strengthening of raw materials orientation without due consideration for environmental restrictions has led to an even more exacerbating ecological situation, in which degradation of the natural environment has reached a catastrophic level, which threatens the national security of the Republic of Kazakhstan. Therefore, the problem of the formation of the system of environmental interests and the hierarchy of social values ​​on a natural historical basis and, accordingly, the establishment of the priority of the development of an environmentally sound strategy for the development of the Republic of Kazakhstan and the formation of an economic mechanism that reflects the requirements of environmental safety, emerged with all the urgency. In this regard, the use of the principles and the concept of sustainable development, recognized by the world community as the basic ideology for ensuring the economic, social and environmental balance of society, is especially relevant for the Republic of Kazakhstan. The lands of industrial centers of Kazakhstan, as a rule, are polluted with heavy metals. Significant role in the pollution of land in cities and other settlements belongs to road transport, the number of which in recent years has increased significantly. Enterprises of the oil and gas complex of the republic occupy one of the leading places in soil contamination with various chemical compounds.

Regions of oil and gas production are concentrated in the west and southwest of Kazakhstan - in the West Kazakhstan, Aktyubinsk, Atyrau, Mangistau, Kyzylorda regions.

One of the main sources of soil contamination is the discharge of oil into earthen barns, oil spills and water-oil mixture during pipeline ruptures, oil leakage to the surface of the earth during the production of well repair. The practice of flaring associated gas also causes significant environmental and economic damage. The increased thermal background and acidification of the environmental components around the deposits during the combustion of gas have a negative impact on the soil, vegetation, fauna of the areas adjacent to the oil complexes, contributing to the increase in the greenhouse effect.

When exploring and exploiting hydrocarbon fields around each drilling rig, vegetation is destroyed by 70-80% within a radius of 500-800 meters.

The problem of the influence of sulfur stored by LLP "Tengizchevroil" on the environment and public health is acute in Atyrau oblast. According to the information published by UNDP Kazakhstan in the review "Environment and Sustainable Development in Kazakhstan" (2004), technogenic pollution of land in the form of soil oil contamination was tolerated in Atyrau oblast on an area of ​​more than 1.3 million hectares, in some oil fields it Reaches a thickness of 10 meters.

The intensive development of the oil complex leads to the destruction of the natural ecological balance of the earth. The study of the soil cover at various deposits in the Atyrau region showed that the impact of oil and petroleum products leads to changes in the physicochemical and chemical properties of the soil.

18. The existing system of industrial environmental control (PEC) needs to be improved. First, it must be reformed its outdated legal, institutional and technical data, improve data quality, and expand their use in decision-making. The need to reform the current system recognizes the various stakeholders, including government agencies, industry and the public.

It is recommended that the reform aim to achieve the following key results:

- an unambiguous definition of terms and improvement of the legal framework;

- differentiation scope of the Industrial environmental control (IEC) in the case of large enterprises and small and medium-sized enterprises and its link with the terms of permits and mandatory rules of the common action;

- the establishment of clear requirements for the content IEC programs;

- increase the term of the IEC programs with the ability to change them if necessary, and the introduction of the post of operational requirements;

- a combination of different types of monitoring, the rejection of a comprehensive impact monitoring practices and adoption of different organizational forms of IEC for its better fit the resources available to businesses;

- the introduction of methodologically reliable methods to determine the type and frequency of monitoring;

- optimization of the cost of production environmental control;

- establishing common requirements for quality (accurate results) measurements and the development of data quality strategy;

- effective data management, reporting and constructive use of information in decision-making, including internal remedial measures;

- regular review and use of data IEC authorities and their public evaluation;

- more efficient use of data IEC in checks and enforcement in parallel with the creation of a system of incentives to comply with the requirements of enterprises of IEC.

Explanation of the basic concepts

In addition to the definition of industrial environmental control, presented in the introduction, in the legislation should be determined by the following basic concepts:

- “Installation” - a stationary technical unit on which the one or more activities at one and the same object, and that can have a negative impact on the environment.

- “Dimension” - a set of operations to determine the value of the parameter, implying an individual quantitative result.

- “Monitoring” is the systematic monitoring of changes in certain chemical or physical characteristics of the emission, discharge, flow or other parameters and technical indicators. In the context of industrial environmental control monitoring includes:

• monitoring of technological processes

• parameters for observation (e.g., pressure, temperature, flow rate) of the process to confirm that these parameters are within the permissible range;

• emission monitoring - monitoring of industrial emissions at source, i.e. monitoring of substances (emissions, effluents, waste) and factors affecting the installation on the environment;

• monitoring of the environment in the affected area controlled production - monitoring pollution levels in the vicinity of the enterprise and its zone of influence on ecosystems and human health.

- “Operator” (a business entity, the polluter) is a natural or legal person who is the owner or the head of a controlled installation and authorized to ensure compliance with environmental permit conditions.

19. Give the definition of basic principles of the interregional (international) level

Monitoring is a multi-level system. In chorological aspect typically isolated system (or subsystem) detailed, local, regional, national, and global levels

The lowest hierarchical level is the level of detailed monitoring implemented within small areas (plots), etc.

When a detailed monitoring system is merged into a larger network (for example, within an area, etc.), a local level monitoring system is formed. Local monitoring is intended to provide an assessment of the system changes in the wider area: the territory of the city district.

Local systems can be combined into larger ones - regional monitoring systems that cover the territories of regions within the province or region, or within several of them. Such regional monitoring systems, integrating data from observational networks that differ in approaches, parameters, tracking territories and periodicity, can adequately form complex assessments of the state of territories and give forecasts for their development.

Regional monitoring systems can be integrated within one state into a single national (or state) monitoring network, thus forming a national level) of the monitoring system. An example of such a system was the "Unified State System for Environmental Monitoring of the Russian Federation" (ESSEM) and its territorial subsystems, successfully created in the 90s of the twentieth century to adequately address the tasks of managing territories. However, after the Ministry of Ecology in 2002, USSEM was also abolished and currently there are only departmental-disparate observation networks in Russia, which does not allow to adequately solve the strategic tasks of managing the territories taking into account the ecological imperative.

Within the framework of the UN environmental program, the task is to integrate national monitoring systems into a single intergovernmental network - the Global Environment Monitoring System (GEMS). This is the highest level of the global environmental monitoring system. Its purpose is to monitor changes in the environment on the Earth and its resources in general, on a global scale. Global monitoring is a system for monitoring the state and forecasting possible changes in global processes and phenomena, including anthropogenic impacts on the biosphere of the Earth as a whole. While the creation of such a system in full, operating under the auspices of the United Nations, is the task of the future, since many states do not yet have their own national systems.

The global system for monitoring the environment and resources is designed to solve global environmental problems throughout the Earth, such as global warming, the problem of preserving the ozone layer, the forecast of earthquakes, conservation of forests, global desertification and soil erosion, floods, food and energy resources, An example of such a subsystem of environmental monitoring is the global observation network of Earth's seismic monitoring, which operates under the International Program for the Control of Foci earthquakes, etc..

20. Today the observation network of the sources of exposure and the condition of the biosphere spans the globe. The global of environmental monitoring system (GEMS) was created by joint efforts of the world community. The main provisions and objectives of the programme the GEMS were formulated in 1974 at the first intergovernmental meeting on monitoring. Priority was recognized as the organization of monitoring of environmental pollution, and causing its influence factors.

The monitoring system is implemented at several levels, which correspond to specifically designed programs:

‒ impact (study of environmental impacts at the local scale-I);

‒ regional (a manifestation of the migration and transformation of contaminants, combined effects of different factors specific to the economy of the region and transboundary transport - R);

‒ background (based on biosphere reserves, where any economic activities are prohibited - B).

* Extremely important a natural component of the stratosphere - the ozone acts as a pollutant (strong oxidant involved in the formation of photochemical smog) in the troposphere (the lower atmosphere). Program impact monitoring can be directed, for example, to study the characteristics of the release into the environment and scattering in it of pollutants contained in the exhaust gas or wastewater of a particular company. Subject to regional monitoring, as follows from the name itself, is the environment within that particular region. Finally, the background monitoring carried out in the framework of the international program "Man and biosphere", is intended to capture the background environment, which is necessary for further estimates of the levels of anthropogenic impact. Program observations are formed according to the principle of priority (subject to priority determination) of pollutants and integrated (reflecting the group of phenomena, processes or substances) characteristics. Classes of priority pollutants, established an expert way and taken in the GEMS, is shown in table 1.

The definition of priorities in the organization of monitoring systems depends on the purpose and objectives of specific programs: for example, in regional monitoring priority is given to urban water bodies - the sources of drinking water and spawning grounds of fish, so in relation to the media of observations in the first place, examine the air and water of freshwater reservoirs. The priority of ingredients is determined based on criteria that reflect toxic, radioactive or pathogenic properties of pollutants, the volume of release into the environment, transformation characteristics, the probability and magnitude of effects on humans and biota, and other factors such as, measurements, cost analysis, etc.

21. Industrial ecology (IE) is the study of material and energy flows through industrial systems. The global industrial economy can be modelled as a network of industrial processes that extract resources from the Earth and transform those resources into commodities which can be bought and sold to meet the needs of humanity. Industrial ecology seeks to quantify the material flows and document the industrial processes that make modern society function. Industrial ecologists are often concerned with the impacts that industrial activities have on the environment, with use of the planet's supply of natural resources, and with problems of waste disposal. Industrial ecology is a young but growing multidisciplinary field of research which combines aspects of engineering, economics, sociology, toxicology and the natural sciences.

Industrial ecology has been defined as a "systems-based, multidisciplinary discourse that seeks to understand emergent behaviour of complex integrated human/natural systems".The field approaches issues of sustainability by examining problems from multiple perspectives, usually involving aspects of sociology, the environment, economy and technology. The name comes from the idea that the analogy of natural systems should be used as an aid in understanding how to design sustainable industrial systems.One of the central principles of Industrial Ecology is the view that societal and technological systems are bounded within the biosphere, and do not exist outside of it. Ecology is used as a metaphor due to the observation that natural systems reuse materials and have a largely closed loop cycling of nutrients. Industrial Ecology approaches problems with the hypothesis that by using similar principles as natural systems, industrial systems can be improved to reduce their impact on the natural environment as well. The table shows the general metaphor. The Kalundborg industrial park is located in Denmark. This industrial park is special because companies reuse each other's waste (which then becomes by-products). For example, the Energy E2 Asnæs Power Station produces gypsum as a by-product of the electricity generation process; this gypsum becomes a resource for the BPB Gyproc A/S which produces plasterboards. This is one example of a system inspired by the biosphere-technosphere metaphor: in ecosystems, the waste from one organism is used as inputs to other organisms; in industrial systems, waste from a company is used as a resource by others.Apart from the direct benefit of incorporating waste into the loop, the use of an eco-industrial park can be a means of making renewable energy generating plants, like Solar PV, more economical and environmentally friendly. In essence, this assists the growth of the renewable energy industry and the environmental benefits that come with replacing fossil-fuels. Additional examples of industrial ecology include:

Substituting the fly ash byproduct of coal burning practices for cement in concrete production.Using second generation biofuels. An example of this is converting grease or cooking oil to biodiesels to fuel vehicles.[9] IE examines societal issues and their relationship with both technical systems and the environment. Through this holistic view, IE recognizes that solving problems must involve understanding the connections that exist between these systems, various aspects cannot be viewed in isolation. Often changes in one part of the overall system can propagate and cause changes in another part. Thus, you can only understand a problem if you look at its parts in relation to the whole. Based on this framework, IE looks at environmental issues with a systems thinking approach. A good IE example with these societal impacts can be found at the Blue Lagoon in Iceland. The Lagoon uses super-heated water from a local geothermal power plant to fill mineral-rich basins that have become recreational healing centers. In this sense the industrial process of energy production uses its wastewater to provide a crucial resource for the dependent recreational industry.

South Africa's National Cleaner Production Center was created in order to make the region's industries more efficient in terms of materials.

22. Pollution can occur as a result of natural causes - this is a natural pollution. For example, pollution of the biosphere as a result of volcanic eruptions, earthquakes, catastrophic floods, forest fires. Pollution, which is caused by human activities, is anthropogenic pollution. Both natural and anthropogenic pollutants can be of different types.

1. Depending on the origin of pollutants, the following types of pollution are distinguished: - Physical pollution is pollution associated with changes in the physical parameters of the environment: thermal, light, electromagnetic, radiation, etc. For example, although the effect of electromagnetic pollution on humans has not been fully explored, there is reason to believe that the proximity of the high-voltage power line contributes to the development of cancer in humans; - Chemical pollution is a change in the natural chemical properties of the medium as a result of exceeding the average annual concentrations of any substances or as a result of the penetration of new chemicals into it. Chemical pollution is the most common and often the most dangerous for living organisms.

- Biological pollution is pollution due to introduction into the environment and reproduction in it of undesirable for human organisms. Biological pollution is divided into: a) biogenic, associated with the spread of undesirable for humans nutrients, for example, secretions, dead bodies, in areas or water areas where they have not previously been observed; B) microbial, manifested in the appearance in an environment of an unusually large number of microorganisms as a result of their mass reproduction, which harms humans and other organisms. For example, outbreaks of infectious diseases are the result of biological contamination of the environment;

- Information pollution is any information capable of removing ecosystems from a state of equilibrium, causing damage to nature and rational nature management.

2. Depending on how the pollutant enters the environment, the following are distinguished:

- Primary pollution caused by contamination from the environment;

- secondary pollution, formed during the physico-chemical interaction of primary pollutants. For example, a photochemical smog (smoke, fog) is a mixture of products of secondary air pollution arising from the decomposition of pollutants by the sun's rays.

3. In terms of distribution of pollution, distinguish:

- Global pollution, found anywhere in the biosphere;

- regional pollution occurs within a region;

- Local pollution takes place around an industrial enterprise, a city, intraquarter.

4. On the degree of stability of pollutants in the environment, distinguish:

- persistent pollution caused by a chemically stable pollutant that is not part of the natural cycle of substances and therefore very slowly decomposing. For example, xenobiotics (Greek xenos - alien, bios - life), which are foreign compounds synthesized by humans, such as polyethylene, synthetic detergents, many pesticides, etc.;

- unstable pollution caused by pollutants entering into the natural cycles of substances, so that they quickly disappear, subject to biological destruction.

5. For pollution facilities, i.e. On Wednesdays, in which they spread, they release pollution of space, atmosphere, hydrosphere, soil, rivers, seas, oceans, etc.

23. In November 1979, a "Declaration on Low-Waste Technology and Wasteless Technology and Waste Management" was adopted at a meeting on environmental protection within the United Nations (UN) in Geneva. In accordance with the Declaration under wasteless technology is understood such a principle of functioning of industry and agriculture of the region, industry, as well as individual industries, in which all components of raw materials and energy in a cycle are rationally used and ecological balance is not disturbed.

By low-waste means such production, the harmful effects of which do not exceed the level allowed by sanitary norms, but for technical, economic, organizational or other reasons, part of raw materials and materials goes into waste and sent to long-term storage. Of course, the concept of non-waste technology is to some extent conditional. By non-waste technology is understood the theoretical limit, the ideal model of production, which in most cases can not be realized in full, but only partially (hence the low-waste technology), but with the development of technical progress - with increasing approximation. Technological processes with minimal emissions, in which the ability of nature to self-purification can sufficiently prevent the occurrence of irreversible environmental changes, is sometimes called low-waste technologies. However, the name "wasteless technology" has become most widespread.The strategy of non-waste technology is based on the fact that unused wastes are simultaneously not fully used natural resources and a source of environmental pollution. Reducing the specific output of unused waste per product of the technology will allow producing more products from the same amount of raw materials and will, at the same time, be an effective measure for the protection of the environment.The biosphere gives us natural resources, from which final products are produced in the production sphere, while waste is generated. The products are used either in the production sphere or in the sphere of consumption, and waste is generated again. Waste refers to substances that do not have consumer value at first. In many cases, if necessary, after appropriate processing, they can be used as secondary raw materials (secondary material resources) or as secondary energy carriers (secondary energy resources). If, for technical or technological reasons, it is not possible or economically disadvantageous to process waste, then they must be introduced into the biosphere in such a way that, if possible, it does not harm the natural environment.

In the creation of wasteless technology, the following four principles were determined:

1. development and implementation of various drainless process flowsheets and water circulation cycles based on effective cleaning methods (for example, in galvanic production);

2. Development and implementation of fundamentally new technological processes that exclude the formation of any type of waste;

3. creation of territorial-industrial complexes, i.e. Economic regions in which a closed system of material flows of raw materials and wastes within the complex is realized;

4. widespread use of waste as secondary material and energy resources.

Analysis of the current situation, calculations and forecasts for the future convincingly show that the implementation of non-waste production in all industries is possible provided that the achievements of science and technology are used actively, and primarily chemical technology.

A feature of chemical technology is that it is able to turn into resources not only its own waste, but also the waste of other industries. In this regard, chemistry and chemical technology contribute to the solution of such fundamental problems of nature protection as the integrated use of raw materials and waste disposal, neutralization of industrial emissions.

24. Feasibility studies on systems of environmental monitoring of various branches and enterprises in our country were developed in pursuance of the resolution of the Government of the About creation of Uniform state system of environmental monitoring". The uniform state system of environmental monitoring of the Russian Federation (EGSEM) is a form of the organization of Public service of supervision over a state of environment according to Art. 69 of the Act of the Russian Federation "About protection of surrounding environment", accepted in 1991. The uniform state system of environmental monitoring is created as the system having own rules of procedure and management providing information support of management of an ecological situation in the territory of Russia and using the data necessary for this purpose obtained by departmental (branch) systems (services, networks) which are carrying out monitoring of separate objects. When carrying out the production environmental monitoring (PEM) are controlled:

during construction —

• emissions in the atmosphere of stationary and mobile sources of pollution,

• emissions of gas at tests of pipelines;

• dumpings of water at tests of pipelines;

• solid building and household waste;

• sewage industrial and selitebny (within SPZ) zones.

at operation —

• emissions at tests and retests,

• emissions at planned cleanings of an internal cavity,

• emissions at depressurization of shutoff valves and formation of fistulas,

• emissions of gas at crashes;

• dumpings of the sewer purified and crude economic household and industrial sewage;

- selitebny zones and settlements in the direction of primary winds at distance of influence of gas transmission object.

At implementation of PEM these statistical reportings are analyzed, compared to design materials on gross dumpings and emissions. The assessment of economic efficiency with the analysis of all payments for use of natural resources, and also payments and penalties for pollution is carried out.

At PEM enter the list of necessary actions:

• measurement,

• assessment of efficiency of works on restoration of environment,

• development of measures for weakening of negative impacts,

• maintaining documentation — magazines, reports, photographic materials, cards.

The structure of PEM is under construction according to accepted in Russia by three

EGSEM main levels: federal,

territoryal, local (object).

The PEM system consists of the following interconnected parts:

• networks of collection of information of objects (enterprises), including land (stationary) posts, передвиж ny and stationary laboratories and space means;

• the centers of collecting and the preliminary analysis of information at the level of objects (TsSI);

• the centers of collecting and the analysis of information, planning of nature protection activity at the level of the enterprises (TsSPP);

• regional information and analysis centers (RIAC);

• branch information and analysis center (BIAC);

25. There is a classification of monitoring systems by objects, by factors, by sources and extent of impact.

The objects of observation are as follows: atmospheric, air, water, soil, climatic, monitoring of vegetation, wildlife, public health.

On the impact factors: monitoring of various chemical pollutants, natural and physical factors of influence (electromagnetic radiation, radioactive radiation, solar radiation, acoustic noise, noise vibration).

Explain theoretical fundamentals of industrial ecology

Industrial ecology - studies the impact of the industry - from individual enterprises to technosphere – of the nature; the impact of environmental conditions on the operation of enterprises and their complexes.The main direction of industrial ecology is to create systems of production and utilization of industrial wastes, which have no effect on biosphere and environment.By now, there was an understanding that a person is doomed to extinction with the accumulation of the products of its creative activity. In connection with this, it sharply increases the value of industrial ecology.It should be noted that the environment will be the improved, the sooner people learn to recycle waste products, using them as raw materials for other industries. Therefore, industrial ecology is a panacea from humanity.Today, industrial ecology covers a very wide range of problems, where problems are very different and have absolutely no biological plan. It is appropriate to talk about engineering geological disciplines: ecology of mining industry, ecology of energy, ecology of chemical industries, etc. It might seem that the use of the word "ecology" in conjunction with these disciplines are not quite right. However, it is not. Such discipline - are very different in their specific content, but they are united on common methodology and a common goal: to maximum reduce impact of industrial activities on the process of circulation of substances in nature and environmental pollution. Modern Biosphere is a product of multiple processes that occur on Earth for 3.5-4.0 billion years. Surrounding us the atmosphere created by nature and remains unchanged during the last about 50 million years. But in recent decades talk about a large change in its composition, destruction ozone sublayer, changing transparency and consequently, the appearance of smog, increasing its pollution with sulfur and nitrogen oxides, lead, mercury, carcinogenic (such as benzo (a) pyrene) and other substances.

Emission of solid substances and the fallout from atmospheric sulfur and nitrogen compounds with acid rain lead to pollution of the hydrosphere and lithosphere. The anthropogenic impact on the biosphere is diverse and approach to the critical permissible level in recent years. Among them, especially negative impact on the atmosphere is provided by:

- Emission of diverse anthropogenic substances and other pollution;

- Emission of heat - influencing on heating of the atmosphere and the change of its radiation parameters, particularly surface layers in which there are people, animals, and plants.

Applied Ecology – complex interscience technical direction, to study the global impact of engineering and technology on the biosphere, the basis of environmental management and safety of human life. The cardinal solution of environmental problems is possible only when the harmonious relationship between society, technology and nature. Ecologically modern production, which is crucial to the problem of rational use and reproduction of natural resources, - the future of industrial complexes. A reasonable solution of ecological problems are possible only if the natural combination of scientific and technological progress with a multi-faceted social aspects of the protection of the biosphere (the ecosphere), which should form the basis of development and creation of existing and new industries and energy sources. Scientific and technical discipline about new technological processes, machines and devices, enabling the establishment of industrial production, which harmonize with the environment, with minimal negative impact on the ecosphere, called "industrial ecology".

Formulated provisions of the new scientific and technical direction - "industrial ecology" - only to a certain extent can highlight the diversity of this branch of science. Of course, they must be constantly supplemented, because industrial ecology is born at the junction of Sciences due to a pressing need.

2. Low-waste (waste-free) technology and closed cycles - one of the most radical to protect the environment from pollution. Next formulated four main areas of development (in accordance with the Declaration on Low- and non-waste technology and the use of waste, adopted in Geneva in 1979).

1. Creation of closed technological systems for different purposes on the basis of existing and future methods of purification and re-use of standard serial effluent.
2. Development and implementation of recycling industrial and household waste, which are considered at the same time as the secondary material resources (BMP).
3. Development of technological processes of production of traditional products principally new methods which achieved the highest possible transport of matter and energy in the finished product.

4. Design and creation of territorial-industrial complexes (TIC) with the fullest possible closed structure of material flows and waste production within them.

Waste-free technology - environmental strategy of industrial production, which includes a set of measures to ensure minimum loss of natural resources at the maximum economic efficiency.

The criterion of non-waste technology is a comprehensive utilization of raw materials and energy, in which the production process is not accompanied by environmental pollution. This man-made cycle of raw materials, products and wastes determines the closure of the production cycle, which in essence is the basis of non-waste technology. The principle of non-waste technology affects all parts of the production activity: the development of new technological recipes, equipment design, economic, environmental, events, etc. According to the official definition given at the International Seminar on low-waste technology in Tashkent in 1984, "non-waste technology - this way. of the production, in which the most rational and comprehensive use raw materials and energy in the cycle of raw materials - production - consumption - secondary resources, and so that any impact on the environment does not disturb its normal functioning. By the concept of non-waste technology, there are two approaches. One is based on the law of conservation of matter, according to which the raw material (matter) can always be converted to a particular product.

Consequently, it is possible to create such a process cycle in which all the environmentally hazardous substances are converted into a safe product or feedstock. According to another, completely non-waste technology cannot be created nor practically or theoretically (just as energy cannot be completely converted into useful work in accordance with the second law of thermodynamics, and the raw material cannot be fully translated into a useful eco-friendly product). In other words, a completely non-waste technology - the ideal system to which everyone should aspire to real technological cycle, and the more it willapproach, the smaller will be environmentally dangerous trail. In this regard, the more real is the so-called low-waste technology - this way of production, where the harmful effects on the environment has been brought up to hygiene standards and the relevant maximum allowable concentrations (levels) MAC-ПДК (MAL -ПДУ). Sometimes, using the concept of "clean technology", meaning this method of production, in which raw materials and energy are used efficiently so that the amount released into the environment of pollutants and waste are minimized.

 

 

3. International cooperation in the field of environmental protection and nature is usually carried out under the scheme: international meetings - the conclusion of contracts - the creation of international governmental and non-governmental organizations - development and coordination of environmental safety programs. The solution to this complex task essentially possible only through concerted international cooperation. Significant efforts of the Russian Federation and foreign partners in this field in accordance with the United Nations Environment Programm made it possible to develop and adopt the following international documents: the Declaration of the Stockholm Conference on the Environment UNPO, Lima Declaration of Guidelines on Auditing, the World Conservation Strategy, the Charter of entrepreneurial activity in the interests of sustainable development, the international Convention on environmental impact assessment in the context of trans boarded, the declaration of the UN Conference on environment and sustainable development, etc., as well as the creation of international governmental and non-governmental organizations:

- United Nations Environment Programm, in 1972, with headquarters in Nairobi;

- UNESCO "Man and Biosphere" program since 1971, with headquarters in Paris;

- Lucerne Ministerial Declaration on the formation of organizational infrastructure, 1993;

- World Health Organization;

- World meteorological organization;

- International Union for Conservation of Nature, 1948, headquartered in Gland;

- Green Cross International, since 1993, with headquarters in The Hague, and others.

Besides the UN and UNESCO, the Council of Europe work in the field of environmental protection, the European Community, Economic Commission for Europe, the Community and other northern countries. Protection of the environment in modern conditions of development of industry, transport, public services and agriculture is one of the most important problems of ecological safety of our state. Improving the efficiency of state control in the field of environmental protection and nature involves strengthening state control bodies by eliminating duplication in the implementation of monitoring and enforcement functions and create a mechanism to protect the rights of citizens and organizations in the course of such activities.State control in the field of environmental protection and nature must have full authority to make independent and objective decisions on all matters related to the implementation of inspections or enforcement actions.Development of the system of state control in the field of environmental protection and nature should be directed to: - To create a model that would help governments to identify the key characteristics of an effective system of enforcement and promote compliance with the legislation of the Republic of Kazakhstan and would contribute to institutional reform of state control bodies in the field of environmental protection and nature in the long term;

- To promote cooperation and exchange of information between all actors involved in the enforcement of environmental legislation, including public authorities, industry, non-governmental organizations and the general public;
- The mandatory implementation of production control as an important tool of environmental management systems;

- A clear definition of responsibilities at all levels of action for the implementation of environmental protection measures;

- Providing legal and social guarantees for officials responsible for control in the field of environment and nature.

4. In justifying the requirements parameters of the biosphere is necessary to know the assessment of various factors and the state of elements of the environment before and after the harmful effects. Here are important methods and organizational forms of environmental control (monitoring) in the country and on the ground. When considering methods should not forget that the state of the biosphere is influenced by both natural and man-made (anthropogenic) impacts. Control of natural environmental changes involved in geophysical services, changes under the influence of human activity - environmental monitoring services. In general, a complex system of monitoring mean observing, assessing and forecast environmental changes due to anthropogenic influences. Creating a generic methods to measure emissions in the atmosphere, and the local emission is metrological complex task. Depending on the application, the measuring apparatus is divided into three main groups:

1 - devices (weight, radioisotopic, optical, inductive, etc.). To control dust and ambient air outside the working area;

2 - devices (weight, optical, electric, laser and others) For measuring the dust content and the particulate composition in the aspiration (ventilating) emission;

3 - instruments (chromatography, mass spectrometry, spectroscopic, electrochemical) for the analysis of air and water environments. The most representative unified state system of environmental monitoring (USEMS) combining geophysical, biological and technological aspects. Organizational forms of environmental control: 1. State Ecological Expertise (SEE) is conducted in order to establish the correctness of the customer business and (or) other activities, possible environmental and related social and economic impacts of its implementation, as well as the completeness and adequacy of provided them of measures to prevent negative environmental impacts. Spend SEE expressly authorized by expert state bodies Ministry of Natural Resources of Kazakhstan. 2. Environmental audition - views on the quality of environmental management of the environment. In general, the environmental auditing can be defined as a voluntary internal self-test operations of some of the production structure in order to align these activities in accordance with the documents governing the use of natural resources, and thereby reducing the existing and potential environmental and financial damage due to non-compliance with these regulatory documents. The effectiveness of environmental auditing programs provide:

- An indispensable support for listening and evaluation of the results of the enterprise management;

- Independence of the function realized by listening activities;

- The professionalism of the audit team;

- Clearly defined objectives, the scope, resources and frequency of environmental auditing;

- The adequacy of the process of gathering, analyzing, interpreting and documenting the results of the objectives of listening;

- Availability of special procedures (algorithms) that provide an objective account of the results of listening in written reports;

- Measures to ensure the quality of environmental auditing.
3. The environmental impact assessment (EIA) - opinion on the economic impact of an object on the environment, drawn up in accordance with the approved rules. Since 1988, the requirement for an EIA has been extended to all fields of activity.

5. Although mandatory, which is different from the IEM of voluntary environmental management systems, this tool combines public and private interests. Its main objective - to provide in the shortest time possible to respond to the environmental problem arising in connection with faults in the process and, at the same time, to reduce public spending on compliance monitoring. These IEM may provide a basis for environmental monitoring and enforcement, as well as for the calculation of pollution charges and administrative fees. In addition, they help to optimize the national, regional and local system of environmental monitoring and establish priorities checks. For the subjects of control reliable data on the impact of their production on the environment is important from an economic point of view. For example, these data help to define more precisely and reduce costs associated with the use of natural resources and ensuring the protection of the environment (which in some areas reached 30% of operating costs), as well as to minimize the cost of the pollution or damage. Publication of data on specific companies and enterprises the ability to compare performance within the same industry sector or international benchmarks may create extra motivation to save money and improve environmental performance. Moreover, access to the data for other businesses increases the credibility of the industry of the state striving to create equal conditions of competition. The presence of publicly available data for each individual company to help citizens make decisions that affect not only their health, but also on the economic well-being, for example, where to buy the property. In Kazakhstan, the social importance of monitoring data IEM is growing due to the expansion of public access to environmental information, in particular in light of the prospects for the establishment of national Pollutant Release and Transfer Register (PRTR) after ratification by 2003 Kiev Protocol to the Aarhus Convention.

Advantages of IEM may be manifested in full only if the results will be used by stakeholders in the decision-making process. Data collection for the data itself, likely to lead to the loss of value system.

6. In Kazakhstan, the implementation of industrial environmental monitoring (IEM), the largest industrial enterprises has a long history: although most programs IEM 3-5 years, some of the oldest enterprises reported on the establishment of such programs in the 1970s. The IEM organization has many positive elements, consistent with good international practice, but some of its shortcomings and weak linkages with the new social and economic conditions greatly reduce the potential benefits of IEM.

The obligation of the industrial enterprises (natural resources) to implement IEM clearly provided by the law "On Environmental Protection", which is a very positive feature of the regulatory framework in Kazakhstan. In addition, the Administrative and Criminal Codes contain provisions to minimize the opportunities for fraud and negligence in the implementation of the IEM program. Regulations are additional requirements for the methods and procedures of IEM. Large enterprises develop individual IEM program. Such multi-model control IEM provides enough opportunities in a timely manner to adapt to the new challenges of the transition process, and gradually develop and tighten the regulatory requirements, without compromising the objectives of socio-economic development.

Duties of control subjects and authorized bodies clearly itemized. Control subjects (in practice - the largest enterprises) responsible for the development of individual IEM integrated programs and submit them for approval by the competent authorities. The obligation to fulfill IEM applies regardless of ownership; IEM uniform requirements established for public and private enterprises.

Enterprises ("nature users") are responsible for the implementation of the IEM programs and provide the necessary expertise, equipment and analytical tools. Sometimes the services are subcontractors. IEM results are reported competent authorities through regular statistical reporting, or immediately in case of emergency situations and accidents. IEM costs are paid now.

The quality of the organization and functioning of the Standing Committee is governed by the certification and certification laboratories, annual assessment IEM programs, audits, etc. Competent authorities are allowed to use IEM data for coercive action against the violators; this approach is used, in particular due to the limited material and financial resources at the disposal of competent authorities to monitor compliance with the requirements.

At the same time, increasing interest of industrial enterprises in the implementation of environmental management systems and automated information systems. It comes amid growing awareness of business leaders the importance of environmental issues to reduce the production costs and financial risks. However, the Ministry of Environmental Protection and its affiliated companies are taking new approaches in dealing with control subjects, involving dialogue and compromise.

Finally, NGOs and the public need access to environmental information for each individual enterprise. The reason for this is the ratification of the Aarhus Convention by Kazakhstan and the signing of the Kiev Protocol on Pollutant Release and Transfer Registers (PRTR).

 

 

7. In various kinds of scientific and practical activity of man to study the properties of objects and phenomena has long been the method of observation - the way of knowledge, based on a relatively long-term focused and perception of objects and phenomena of the surrounding reality. Outstanding samples of organizations observation for the natural environment are described in the first century AD in the "Natural History" Second Guy Pliny (the Elder). Thirty-seven volumes containing information on astronomy, physics, geography, zoology, botany, agriculture, medicine, history, served as the most comprehensive encyclopedia of knowledge to the Middle Ages. According to the now classic definition, environmental monitoring - information system of observations, evaluation and forecast changes in the environment, created to highlight the anthropogenic component of these changes on the background of natural processes.

Environmental monitoring system should collect, systematize and analyze information about:

- State of the environment and its changes;

- The reasons for the observed and possible changes in the state (ie the sources and factors of influence);

- The permissibility of loads on the environment as a whole and its individual components;

- On existing biosphere reserves.

Environmental monitoring in the Russian Federation as a comprehensive observation of the state of the system environment, assessment and prediction of environmental change under the influence of natural and anthropogenic factors.

According to the definitions and functions assigned to the system monitoring has three main areas of activity (Figure 1.)

- observation of the impact factors and the state of the environment;

- Evaluation of the actual state of the environment;

- Forecast the state of the environment and assess the projected state.

It will be appreciated that the monitoring system itself does not include the activities of sources of impact management, but is a source of needed to make environmentally significant information solutions.

The concept of environmental control is also defined:

Control in the field of environment (environmental control) - a system of measures aimed at the prevention, detection and suppression of violations of environmental legislation, enforcement of the subjects of economic and other activity requirements, including standards and regulations in the field of environment environment.

The main tasks of environmental monitoring:

1. Control in the field of environment (environmental control) is carried out in order to ensure public authorities, bodies of state power of subjects, local authorities, legal entities and in the field of environmental protection legislation by individuals runtime compliance, including standards and regulations documents in the field of environmental protection and environmental safety.

2. Implemented government, industrial, municipal and public control in the field of environmental protection.

Thus, according to the environmental legislation, environmental monitoring is an environmental regulation tool to create an information base necessary to perform the tasks of environmental management and control.

8. Today the observation network of the sources of exposure and the condition of the biosphere spans the globe. The global of environmental monitoring system (GEMS) was created by joint efforts of the world community. The main provisions and objectives of the programme the GEMS were formulated in 1974 at the first intergovernmental meeting on monitoring. Priority was recognized as the organization of monitoring of environmental pollution, and causing its influence factors.

The monitoring system is implemented at several levels, which correspond to specifically designed programs:

‒ impact (study of environmental impacts at the local scale-I);

‒ regional (a manifestation of the migration and transformation of contaminants, combined effects of different factors specific to the economy of the region and transboundary transport - R);

Начало формы

Конец формы

‒ background (based on biosphere reserves, where any economic activities are prohibited - B).

* Extremely important a natural component of the stratosphere - the ozone acts as a pollutant (strong oxidant involved in the formation of photochemical smog) in the troposphere (the lower atmosphere). Program impact monitoring can be directed, for example, to study the characteristics of the release into the environment and scattering in it of pollutants contained in the exhaust gas or wastewater of a particular company. Subject to regional monitoring, as follows from the name itself, is the environment within that particular region. Finally, the background monitoring carried out in the framework of the international program "Man and biosphere", is intended to capture the background environment, which is necessary for further estimates of the levels of anthropogenic impact. Program observations are formed according to the principle of priority (subject to priority determination) of pollutants and integrated (reflecting the