Write the ways to create a low-waste technologies.

Wasteless is called production, in which all raw materials and even waste are still converted into finished products. Including such a design provides for the processing of any product, even after its moral or physical deterioration. This is a closed cycle, which can only be compared with natural ecological systems, which are based on biogeochemical cycles of substances. Creation of wasteless production represents a gradual and long-term process, for which a number of economic, technological, psychological, organizational and other tasks are to be solved.

Establishment of production. Very rarely it is possible to achieve completely wasteless production, but the residual material can be minimized. In the event that the assortment is large enough, it is best to use universal raw materials or semi-finished products, and then engage in the alignment of the technological process so that all these components are suitable for manufacturing a large number of units of the final product. A well-established waste-free and low-waste production will simplify logistics and reduce the cost of raw materials. This, in particular, will affect the cost of production and reduce costs, as a result, profits will grow. It is important that in such processes raw materials are not stored, and it does not become worthless. In the event that materials become unclaimed for one product, they will be allowed to manufacture another.

Principles. In order to minimize the costs of the enterprise and improve its productivity, the following principles are used for non-waste production: systemicity is when each of the individual processes can be considered as a particle of a more complex technological chain; The integrated use of energy and raw materials resources - these are additional opportunities to extract the accompanying components; The cyclical nature of material flows is a closed production process that can in some way repeat the natural cycles; A rational organization is when irreplaceable loss of resources can be minimized by recycling waste; Principle of ecological safety. Wasteless and low-waste technology provides: a complete processing of raw materials using components based on the production of new non-waste processes; Issue and manufacture of new varieties of products, taking into account the request for secondary processing; Use of waste and their consumption with the final receipt of marketable products, or any useful use thereof without a shift in ecological balance; The use of closed water supply systems in industry; Production of wasteless complexes.

Direction of development Using low-waste and non-waste technologies of production, it is possible to formulate four main directions of their development: The emergence of drainless technological systems for a variety of purposes, based on available and promising methods of cleaning and re-use of normative treatment effluents. Development and application of systems for processing domestic and industrial wastes, which can be considered as secondary material resources. Introduction of technological processes for the manufacture of traditional products exclusively by new methods, in which it is possible to develop the maximum possible transfer of energy and matter to the finished product; Development and application of territorial industrial complexes, with a more closed structure of material waste. Requirements for non-waste production In order to move along the path of improving existing ones and to develop fundamentally new technological processes, it is necessary to comply with certain requirements: reduction of production processes to a minimum number of stages, as each of them produces waste and simply lost raw materials; Use of continuous processes that allow the efficient use of energy and raw materials; Increase in the unit capacity of machinery; Regularity of production processes, their automation and optimization. Correct combination of technologies and power engineering allows to establish high-quality waste-free production, which can be found in the sphere of chemical transformations, energy saving, as well as materials and raw materials.

38. At the beginning of the 20th century, the Russian scientist V.I. Vernadsky developed the doctrine of the biosphere, the living matter (which organizes the earth's shell), and the evolution of the biosphere into the noosphere. The noosphere (from the Greek Noos - the mind) is the sphere of the mind, or the "thinking shell". According to this teaching, the human mind, activity and scientific thought become the determining factor of development, a powerful force that is comparative in its impact on nature with geological processes However, despite the fact that it was already almost a century ago, until now the view of the noosphere is extremely contradictory. On the one hand, the noospheric teaching recognizes as the greatest scientific achievement, moreover, as the basic law of social ecology. On the other hand, it is a bright but utopian dream of managing the human mind of the environment. In the concept of the noosphere, it is difficult to intertwine materialistic and religious philosophical views on the role and purpose of mankind, thought in the surrounding world. It is natural and natural for the Christian world view, which for centuries was formed under the impeccable law of man to possess all the riches of nature bestowed from above. Key provisions of the concept of the noosphere VI. Vernadsky formulated as follows: a) humanity is a great geological force; B) this force is the mind and will of man, as a being socially organized; B) the face of the planet, changed due to the fact that the biochemical cycles; D) humanity evolves towards isolation from the rest of the biosphere. Vernadsky saw and predicted the negative consequences of anthropogenic impact on nature. In the geological history of the biosphere, a great future opens before a person, if he understands this, and will not use his mind and labor for self-destruction. From the point of view of the concept of the noosphere, the evolution of human society is represented as the cumulative evolution of man's mental abilities, the development of more efficient sources of energy, tools and labor technologies, science and culture. For 2 million years, from the moment of separation of man from the animal state, the primitive society developed. The population was not large. Human society is also part of the natural ecosystem, and the destruction of the biosphere was of a minor, narrowly local nature. With the development of the productive economy (agriculture and livestock), with the subsequent increase in the population and the growth of large cities, the destruction of the biosphere increases from local to large regional sizes. About 200 years ago, the industrial period began. The growth of technical development was accompanied by a rapid increase in energy consumption. Science and culture were developing rapidly. There was a demographic explosion. The development of human society was accompanied by an avalanche degradation of the biosphere. By the end of the 20th century, the ecological crisis had reached a global scale. Mankind gradually comes to the realization that the development of industrial production, if implemented, does not pay due attention to natural factors, generates phenomena whose destructive potential is comparable to the use of weapons of mass destruction. Along with regulating regional conflicts, overcoming economic backwardness, solving environmental problems is the most important factor in the struggle for the survival of mankind. The concept of noosphere VI. Vernadsky: conditions for the transition of the biosphere to the noosphere, autotrophic - noospheric concept. Academician Vladimir Ivanovich Vernadsky is a great Russian scientist, natural scientist and thinker, creator of new scientific disciplines, the doctrine of the biosphere, the doctrine of the transition of the biosphere to the noosphere.

39. Protection of the environment from radioactive contamination provided by the following measures:

• application of perfect production technology that minimizes the amount of radioactive waste flowing and prevents their leakage (sealing of processes associated with their use and use of aerosols, application of the water cycle, etc.);

• Carrying out neutralization, centralized collection and storage of radioactive waste;

• organization of sanitary protection zones and planning activities.

At present, taking into account the requirements for sources of environmental pollution, radionuclides allow the discharge of waste with such activity, the level of which corresponds to the number of artificial radionuclides entering the body in excess of their annual receipts for individuals from among or from outside the air radionuclides Argon, krypton, Xenon and short-lived isotopes of carbon, nitrogen and oxygen.

Radioactive extracts include solutions, articles, materials, biological objects containing radionuclides in quantities exceeding the values, sanitary standards in force (SPORO-2002) and not subject to further use. The radioactive radiation also includes the spent resources of ionizing radiation.

Radioactive waste for aggregate equipment for liquid, solid and gaseous materials.

Liquid radioactive waste - organic and inorganic liquids, pulps and sludge, not subject to further use, including total volume activity of radionuclides more than 10 times greater than the values ​​given in

Solid radioactive waste - spent radionuclide sources, not intended for further use materials, products, equipment, biological

Objects, as well as cured liquid radioactive waste, in which the specific activity of radionuclides is higher than the minimum significant specific activity, given in Appendix NRB-99/2009. In the case of an unknown radionuclide compound, solid wastes are considered radioactive if their specific activity is more

• 100 kBq / kg for β-emitting radionuclides;

• 10 kBq / kg - for α-emitting radionuclides;

• 1 kBq / kg - for transuranic radionuclides.

Gaseous radioactive wastes are radioactive gases and aerosols that are not subject to use and are formed during production processes. For the purification of air from radioactive gases and aerosols, the following methods are most often recommended:

• filtration on fine-fibrous polymers in the form of fabrics (for aerosols);

• filtering on packed filters (for aerosols);

• absorption by solutions;

• absorption of gases on solid sorbents;

• exposure in time.

Methods for processing liquid radioactive waste At present, the choice of the scheme for processing liquid radioactive wastes is due, firstly, to the specific activity of the waste and its volume, and secondly to the qualitative composition of the liquid waste both in isotopes and in other components. The ultimate goal of these methods is to concentrate radionuclides for further curing.

To remove radionuclides from liquid wastes, distillation, sedimentation methods, coagulation and ion exchange, evaporation are most widely used.

Distillation is a simple and reliable method for treating liquid radioactive waste. When the solutions are evaporated, the radionuclides are concentrated in a small volume of the unpaired residue. The degree of purification of solutions (the ratio of the concentration of radioactive material in the initial solution to its concentration in the distillate) with this method reaches 10,000 or more. The appearance of radionuclides in the distillate can be due to the sublimation of certain isotopes (for example, 103Ru, 131I) and the drift of droplets and particles by steam during foaming. In order to prevent such phenomena, special systems of evaporators are installed, the design of which includes additional filters, and the liquid is distilled at a certain pH and the addition of various compounds.