North America, Australia and New Zealand

 

Текст3.

 

Road signs in the United States.

 

 

handicap sign

 

One of Catskill Park's distinctive brown town signs with yellow text, showing the hamlet of Pine Hill

 

Yellow and black warning signs for kangaroos are common in Australia.

Color schemes

The North American, Australian and New Zealand colours normally have these meanings:

· red with white for stop signs, yield, and forbidden actions (such as No Parking)

· green with white letters for informational signs, such as directions, distances, and places

· brown with white for signs to parks, historic sites, ski areas, forests, and campgrounds

· blue with white for rest areas, food, gasoline, hospitals, lodging, and other services

· white with black (or red) letters for regulatory signs, such as speed limits (or parking)

· yellow with black letters and symbols for warning signs, such as curves and school zones

· orange with black letters for temporary traffic control zones and detours associated with road construction

· purple for "lanes restricted to use only by vehicles with registered electronic toll collection (ETC) accounts", such as EZPass.

The U.S. Manual on Uniform Traffic Control Devices prescribes four other colors:^[2]

· fluorescent yellow-green for school zone, school bus stop, pedestrian, playground, and bicycle warning signs

· fluorescent pink for incident management signs

· coral and light blue, which are unassigned.

Regulatory signs are also sometimes seen with white letters on red or black signs. In Quebec, blue is often used for to public services such as rest areas; many black-on-yellow signs are red-on-white instead.

Many U.S. states and Canadian provinces now use fluorescent orange for construction signs.

 

Текст4.

Highway symbols and markers.

 

 

Rural highway sign, Saskatchewan.

Every state and province has different markers for its own highways, but use standard ones for all federal highways. Many special highways– such as the Queen Elizabeth Way, Trans-Canada Highway, and various auto trails in the U.S. – have used unique signs. Counties in the U.S. sometimes use a pentagonal blue sign with yellow letters for numbered county roads, though the use is inconsistent even within states.

Units

Distances on traffic signs generally follow the measurement system in use by the country. Most U.S. road signs use miles or feet, although the federal Department of Transportation has developed metric standards for all signs. United Kingdom signs also display distances in miles. Elsewhere, metric distances are in very wide use, though not universal.

Languages

 

Multilingual road signs in Mistissini, Quebec in Cree, English and French.

Where signs use a language, the recognized language/s of the area is normally used. Signs in most of the U.S., Canada, Australia, and New Zealand are in English. Quebec uses French, while New Brunswick and the Jacques-Cartier and Champlain bridges, in Montreal (as well as some parts in the West Island), use both English and French, and a number of other provinces and states, such as Ontario, Manitoba, and Vermont use bilingual French–English signs in certain localities. Puerto Rico, a territory of the US, Mexico, and Spain use Spanish. Signs in Belgium are in French, Dutch and German depending on region. In the Brussels Capital Region, road signs are in French and Dutch. Signs in Finland are in Finnish and Swedish. Signs in Germany and Austria are in German. Signs in Luxembourg are in French and German. Signs in Switzerland are in French, German, and Italian. Within a few miles of the U.S.-Mexico border, road signs are often in English and Spanish in places like San Diego, Yuma, and El Paso. Indigenous languages, mainly Nahuatl as well as some Mayan languages, have been used as well.

Текст 5.

Typefaces.

 

The typefaces predominantly used on signs in the U.S. and Canada are the FHWA alphabet series (Series B through Series F and Series E Modified). Details of letter shape and spacing for these alphabet series are given in “Standard Alphabets for Traffic Control Devices,” first published by the Bureau of Public Roads (BPR) in 1945 and subsequently updated by the Federal Highway Administration (FHWA). It is now part of Standard Highway Signs (SHS), the companion volume to the MUTCD which gives full design details for signfaces.

Initially, all of the alphabet series consisted of uppercase letters and digits only, although lowercase extensions were provided for each alphabet series in a 2002 revision of SHS. Series B through Series F evolved from identically named alphabet series which were introduced in 1927.

Straight-stroke letters in the 1927 series were substantially similar to their modern equivalents, but unrounded glyphs were used for letters such as B, C, D, etc., to permit more uniform fabrication of signs by illiterate painters. Various state highway departments and the federal BPR experimented with rounded versions of these letters in the following two decades.

The modern, rounded alphabet series were finally standardized in 1945 after rounded versions of some letters (with widths loosely appropriate for Series C or D) were specified as an option in the 1935 MUTCD and draft versions of the new typefaces had been used in 1942 for guide signs on the newly constructed Pentagon road network.

The mixed-case alphabet now called Series E Modified, which is the standard for destination legend on freeway guide signs, originally existed in two parts: an all-uppercase Series E Modified, which was essentially similar to Series E, except for a larger stroke width, and a lowercase-only alphabet. Both parts were developed by the California Division of Highways (now Caltrans) for use on freeways in 1948–1950.

Initially, the Division used all-uppercase Series E Modified for button-reflectorized letters on ground-mounted signs and mixed-case legend (lowercase letters with Series D capitals) for externally illuminated overhead guide signs. Several Eastern turnpike authorities blended all-uppercase Series E Modified with the lowercase alphabet for destination legends on their guide signs.

Eventually, this combination was accepted for destination legend in the first manual for signing Interstate highways, which was published in 1958 by the American Association of State Highway Officials and adopted as the national standard by the BPR.

Uses of non-FHWA typefaces

 

Some traffic signs, such as the left-turn prohibition sign hanging from this gantry, are lit for better visibility, particularly at night or in inclement weather.

The U.S. National Park Service uses NPS Rawlinson Roadway, a serif typeface, for guide signage; it typically appears on a brown background. Rawlinson has replaced Clarendon as the official NPS typeface, but some states still use Clarendon for recreational signage.

Georgia, in the past, used uppercase Series D with a custom lowercase alphabet on its freeway guide signs; the most distinctive feature of this typeface is the lack of a dot on lowercase I and j. More recent installations appear to include the dots.

The Clearview typeface, developed by U.S. researchers to provide improved legibility, is permitted for light legend on dark backgrounds under FHWA interim approval. Clearview has seen widespread use by state departments of transportation in Arkansas, Illinois, Maryland, Michigan, Ohio, Pennsylvania, Texas, and Virginia. In Canada, the Ministry of Transportation for the Province of British Columbia specifies Clearview for use on its highway guide signs, and its usage has shown up in Ontario on the Don Valley Parkway and Gardiner Expressway in Toronto and on new 400-series highway installations in Hamilton, Halton and Niagara, as well as street signs in various parts of the province. The font is also being used on newer signs in Alberta, Manitoba, and Quebec.

 

A new Clearview typeface sign beside an old FHWA typeface, Quebec

It is common for local governments, airport authorities, and contractors to fabricate traffic signs using typefaces other than the FHWA series; Helvetica and Arial are common choices

 

 

Текст 6.

Traffic signing in the UK.

Traffic signing in the UK conforms broadly to European norms, though a number of signs are unique to Britain and direction signs omit European route numbers. The current sign system, introduced on 1 January 1965, was developed in the late 1950s and early 1960s by the Anderson Committee, which established the motorway signing system, and by the Worboys Committee, which reformed signing for existing all-purpose roads. (For illustrations of most British road signs, see the Highway Code website.)

The UK remains the only European Union member nation and the only Commonwealth country to use non-metric (Imperial) measurements for distance and speed, although "authorised-weight" signs have been in metric tonnes since 1981 and there is currently a dual-unit (metric first) option for height and width restriction signage, intended for use on safety grounds where foreign drivers are likely to be using the routes so that they may better understand the restriction and/or advice about a hazard ahead.

Three colour schemes exist for direction signs. A road may be a motorway (white on blue), a primary route (white on dark green with yellow route numbers), or a non-primary route (black on white). A fourth colour scheme, black on yellow, is seen on temporary signs, for example marking a diversionary route avoiding a road closure.

Two typefaces are specified for British road signs. Transport Medium or Transport Heavy are used for all text on fixed permanent signs and most temporary signage, depending on the colour of the sign and associated text colour; dark text on a white background is normally set in Heavy so that it stands out better. This is except for route numbers on motorway signs, for which a taller limited character set typeface called Motorway is used.

Signs are generally bilingual in all parts of Wales (English/Welsh or Welsh/English), and are beginning to be seen in parts of the Scottish Highlands (English/Scottish Gaelic).

 

One-way road sign in Wales, with the Welsh preceding the English.

All signs and their associated regulations can be found in the Traffic Signs Regulations and General Directions, as updated by the TSRGD 2008 and TSRGD 2011 and complemented by the various chapters of the "Traffic Signs Manual".

 

 

Текст 7

 

 

Internal combustion engines

 

The engines of practically all mechanically propelled road vehicles, motorcycles, airplanes, farm tractors, motor boats, and mobile industrial units belong to that class of prime movers known as heat engines, and to the subdivision thereof which has been generally referred to as “internal combustion” engines.

Combustion engines may be divided into types according to the duration of the cycle on which they operate, in terms of piston strokes. By a cycle is meant a succession of operations in the engine cylinder which constantly repeats itself. The great majority of modern automotive engines operate on the four-stroke cycle, usually referred to as Otto cycle, which is completed in four strokes of the piston, or during two revolutions of the crankshaft. Engines are also being built to operate on a cycle which is completed in two piston strokes. In this cycle a combustion gaseous mixture is compressed in the cylinder during the outward stroke of the piston, and burned and allowed to expand during the following inward stroke. Evacuation of the products of combustion and admission of a new-charge take place during the latter part of the expansion, and the early part of the compression stroke. Since there is no separate exhaust stroke, the burnt gases cannot be expelled from the cylinder by a pumping action of the piston therein; they must be blown out, by either fresh air or combustible mixture, under pressure, a process known as scavenging. Two-stroke engines with scavenging by combustible mixture are used only in small units (outboard engines, for example), and generally only in applications where operation is quite intermittent. Their chief advantage is low first cost; their disadvantages are low fuel economy and lack of flexibility. A few engines have been built to operate on a six-stroke cycle, which has certain advantages where fuel of low volatility is to be used. Four of the six strokes of this cycle are used for the same operations as in the four-stroke cycle; during the remaining two strokes the combustible mixture is retained in the cylinder without being ignited, to give the fuel a better chance to vaporize and to diffuse uniformly throughout the air charge. Six-cycle engines have never reached a practical stage, and all of the high-speed combustion engines in use today that operate on volatile fuels, more than 99 per cent. of the total horse power undoubtedly work on the four-stroke cycle.

The four-stroke cycle comprises the following four phases or operations, which succeed one another on the order in which they are given:

Admission of the charge to the cylinder.

Compression of the charge.

Combustion of the charge (which includes its ignition and expansion).

Expulsion of the products of combustion.

 

Текст 8

 

Gasoline engines

Fundamentals of the automobile

 

Basically, the automobile consists of four components. These are:

1. the engine,

2. the framework, or the support for the engine and wheels.,

3. The power train, or mechanism that transmits the power from the engine to the wheels,

4. The body.

To these may be added a fifth component, the car-body accessories: the heater, lights, radio, and the other devices that contribute to the convenience and comfort of the driver.

The engine. – the engine is the source of power that makes the wheels go around and the car move. It is usually referred to as an internal-combustion engine because gasoline is burned within its cylinders or combustion chambers. This burning, or combustion, takes place at such high speed as to be termed as “explosion”; the high pressure thus created causes a shaft to turn or rotate. This rotary motion is transmitted to the car wheels by the power train so that the wheels rotate and the car moves.

Most automobiles engines have six or eight cylinders, although some four-, twelve-. or sixteen-cylinder engines are in use.

Engine operation. – the activities that take place in the engine cylinder can be divided into four stages, or strokes. “stroke” refers to the piston movement/ the upper limit of piston movement is called top dead center. The lower limit of the piston movement is called bottom dead center. A stroke constitutes piston movement from TDC to BDC, or from BDC to TDC.  In other words, the piston completes a stroke each time it changes direction of motion. Where the entire cycle of events in the cylinder requires four strokes, the engine is called a four-stroke-cycle engines. The four strokes are: intake, compression, power and exhaust. 

a) Intake. – on the intake stroke the intake valve is opened. The piston is moving down, and the mixture of air and vaporizes gasoline is being drawn into the cylinder through the valve opening. The mixture of gasoline and air is delivered to the cylinder by the fuel system.

b) Compression. – after the piston reaches BDC or the lower limit of its travel, it begins to move upward and at this instant the intake valve closes. The other valve is also closed so that the cylinder is sealed. The piston moves upward, compressing the mixture to as little as one sixth of its original volume or less. This creates a fairly high pressure within the cylinder.

c) Power. – as the piston reaches TDC or the upper limit of its travel, an electric spark is generated at the cylinder spark plug. The spark plug consists of two wire electrodes, which are electrically insulated from each other. At the proper instant the ignition system delivers a high-voltage surge of electricity to the spark plug. This causes an electric spark to jump across the gap between the spark plug electrodes. The spark ignites or sets fire to the highly explosive mixture of gasoline vapor and air. Rapid combustion takes place, and the already high pressure within the cylinder increases to as much as 400 pounds per square inch. At this instant a piston 3 inches in diameter would have a pressure of nearly 1 and a half tons pushing against it. This terrific pressure against the top of the piston forces it downward, and a power impulse is transmitted to the engine crankshaft through the connecting rod and crank. As the piston moves downward on the power stroke, it continues to transmit turning effort to the shaft.

d) Exhaust. – as the piston reaches the lower limit of its travel again, the exhaust valve opens. The piston moves upward on the exhaust stroke, forcing the burned gases out of the cylinder through the exhaust-valve opening. At the instant that the piston once more reaches top dead center, the exhaust valve closes and the intake valve opens so that, when the piston begins to move downward on the intake stroke, a fresh charge of gasoline vapor and the air can be drawn into the cylinder. The above four strokes are continually repeated during the operation of the cylinder.

 

 

Текст 9

Fuel system

 

The fuel system is designed to store liquid gasoline and to deliver it to the engine cylinders on the intake strokes in the form of vapor mixed with air. The fuel system must vary the proportions if air and gasoline vapor to meet the requirements of the various operating conditions.

The fuel system consists of a tank in which the liquid gasoline is stored, a fuel line. Or tube. Through which the gasoline can be brought from the tank to the engine, a pump which pulls the gasoline through the fuel line, and a carburetor, which mixes the gasoline with air. The carburetor is designed to mix each pound of gasoline with 9 to 15 pounds of air under various operating conditions. The richer mixtures of about 9 pounds of air per pound of gasoline are for starting, initial warm-up, and acceleration, while the leaner mixtures of about 15 pounds of air per pound of gasoline are for normal over-the-road operation.

Fuel pump. – the fuel pump consists of a rocker arm, a flexible diaphragm, and two valves. The rocker arm rests against a cam on the camshaft so that rotation of the shaft makes the arm rock. This rocking motion causes the diaphragm to fluctuate up and down, alternately creating pressure and vacuum in the pump chamber.  When vacuum is created, the inlet valve is lifted off seat, allowing gasoline to be drawn from the fuel tank, through the fuel line, and into the pump chamber. On the return stroke, the diaphragm creates pressure in the pump chamber. This causes the inlet valve to close and the outlet valve to open, forcing gasoline from the pump chamber through a fuel line to the carburetor.

Fuel tank. – the fuel tank, normally located at the rear of the vehicle and attached to the frame, is merely a storage tank made of sheet metal. It often contains a number of baffles or metal plates, which are attached to the inner surface of the tank parallel to the ends. These have openings through which the gasoline can pass, and their main purpose is to prevent sudden surging of the gasoline from one to the other end of the tank, when the car rounds a corner. The filler opening of the tank is closed by a cap, and the tank end of the fuel line is attached at or near the bottom of the tank. Usually, this line enters the tank at the same point slightly above the bottom so that dirt or water that has settled to the bottom of the tank will not enter the fuel line.

Engine fuels. – the automobile engine uses gasoline as fuel. Other types of engine, for example, those used in tractors, trucks, and buses, may use kerosene, distillate alcohol, or fuel oil. Some European countries require that a certain percentage of alcohol be used in gasoline for automobile engines.

Composition of gasoline. – gasoline is a hydrocarbon, since it is made up of hydrogen and carbon compounds. Petroleum, or crude oil, is put through a refining process by which the gasoline is distilled out. Various oil fields produce petroleum that will give gasoline of different characteristics. The procedures of refining are also responsible for variations in gasoline. The gasoline that is used in automobiles is a blend of various types of gasoline. As the proportions of these various types are changed, fuels of different operating characteristics are obtained. Volatility, antiknock value, and freedom from harmful chemicals and gum formations are considered to be the best characteristics of gasoline.

 

Текст 10

 

 Power train. Clutch. Transmission. Gears.

 

The power that the engine develops must be transmitted to the car wheels, so that the wheels will rotate and cause the car to move. The power train perform this job, providing in the process different gear ratios between the engine crankshaft and wheels, so that the engine crankshaft may rotate once. The power train consists of series of gears and shafts, which mechanically connect the engine shaft with the car wheels, and contains a clutch, a transmission or change gears, a propeller shaft, and the final drive.

a) Clutch. – the clutch permits the driver to connect the crankshaft to or disconnect it from the power train. A clutch is necessary since the automobile engine must be started without load, that is without being required to deliver any power. In order for the engine to deliver power, the crankshaft must be rotating at a reasonable speed of several hundred revolutions per minute or more. The engine will start at speeds below 100 r.p.m. (revolutions per minute), but it would not continue to operate at this low speed if a load were immediately thrown on it. Consequently, a clutch is placed in the power train between the crankshaft and transmission. The clutch permits the engine to run freely without delivering power to the power train. It also permits operation of the transmission so that the various gear ratios between the engine crankshaft and wheels may be obtained.

The clutch consists essentially of a double-faced friction disk about a foot in a diameter, which is splined to the clutch shaft, and a spring arrangement for forcing this disk tightly against the smooth face hub and external teeth on the clutch shaft that permit relative axial movement but cause the disk and the shaft to rotate together. The flywheel is attached to the end of the engine crankshaft, and when the clutch is engaged, the friction disk is held against the flywheel so that it revolves with the flywheel. This rotary motion is transmitted through the clutch and the clutch shaft to the transmission and from there to the car wheels.

When the clutch foot pedal is depressed, the clutch fork lever moves against the clutch throw out bearing, forcing the bearing inward. This operates release levers that take up the spring pressure so that pressure against the friction disk is revealed and it can move away from the flywheel face. When it happens, the friction disk and shaft stop revolving. When the foot pressure on the clutch pedal is removed, the springs again force the friction disk against the flywheel face, so that it once more rotates with the flywheel.

b) Transmission. – the transmission or change gears provide a means of varying the gear ratios of the engine crankshaft and the wheels. Thus the engine crankshaft may turn four, eight, or twelve times for each wheel revolution. In addition, a reverse gear is provided that permits backing the car.

The varying gear ratios are necessary since the gasoline engine does not develop much power at low engine speeds: it must be turning at a fairly high speed in order to deliver enough power to start the car moving. Thus, on first starting, the gears are placed in low-speed so that the engine crankshaft will turn approximately 12 times for each wheel revolution. The clutch is then engaged, so that power is applied to the wheels. Car speed increases with engine speed until the car is moving 5 or 10 miles per hour, at which time the engine crankshaft may be turning as many as 2,000 r.p.m. the clutch is then disengaged and the engine crankshaft speed reduced to permit gear changing; the gears are shifted into second, and the clutch is again engaged. Since the ratio is now 8:1, a higher car speed is obtained as engine speed is again increased. The gears are then shifted into high, the clutch being disengaged and engaged for this operation, so that the ratio between the engine and wheels will be approximately 4:1. In other words, the engine crankshaft will turn four times to cause the wheels to turn once.

c) Gears. – the relative rotation between two meshing gears (or the gear ratio) is determined by the number of teeth in the gears. When two meshing gears have the same number of teeth, the will both turn at the same speed. When one gear has more teeth than the other, however, the smaller gear will turn more rapidly than the larger one. Thus a gear with 24 teeth will turn half as fast as a gear with only 12 teeth, and the gear ratio between the two gears is 2:1. If the two 12-tooth gear were meshed with a 36-tooth gear, the 12-tooth gear would turn three times for every revolution of the larger gear. The gear ratio between these gears would be 3:1.

 

 

Библиографический список

 

1. Кумарова, М.Г. Новый бизнес-английский (Курс деловой лексики английского языка). [Текст] / М.Г. Кумарова. – М.: Акалис, 1997. – 223 с.

2. Карпусь, И.А. Английский деловой язык. [Текст] / И.А. Карпусь. – Киев: МАУП, 1995. – 246 с.

3. Бабенко, А.П., Христенко, Е.В. Американский вариант английского языка. [Текст] / А.П. Бабенко, Е.В. Христенко. – Харьков: ИМП Рубикон, 1991. – 87 с.

4.Эккерсли, С.Е., Маколей М. Живая грамматика. [Текст] / С.Е. Эккерсли., М. Маколей. – М.: Международные отношения, 1998. – 167 с.

5. Naterop, B.J. Business Letters for All. [Теxt] / B.J. Naterop. – Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1997. – 144 p.

6. Norman, S. We’re in Business. English for commercial and international trade. [Теxt] / S. Norman. – England: Longman, 2000. – 311 p.

7. www. Wikipedia.

8.  http://ouno.ru/novosti/novinki-avtomobilei/obzor-stoimost-range-rover-evoque-dvigateli-ed4-td4-sd4.html

9.  http://www.98region.com/test-drive/3498

10.   http://www.topgearclub.ru/news/4540

11.  http://www.98region.com/test-drive/3385

12.   http://www.topgearclub.ru/news/553.

 

 

Оглавление

 

 

Предисловие…………………………………………………………………………3

 Введение………………………………………………………………………………4

UNIT I

Автосервис (на станции технического обслуживания, на автомойке, на     автозаправочной станции, в прокате автомобилей, устранение неполадок, диагностика и ремонт автомобиля)…………………………………………………………………………..5

UNIT II

Поиск работы (собеседование с менеджером по персоналу, устройство на работу в автомобильный салон, организационная структура компании, полномочия управляющего компанией)…………………………………………………………….22

UNIT III

Городской транспорт (в автобусе, на улице, поездка на такси, на парковке автомобилей, особенности парковки автомобилей в Лондоне и Нью Йорке, будущее общественного транспорта)………………………………………………....41

 

English in Action

(на автошоу, презентация концепции нового автомобиля, трудоустройство в зарубежную компанию, заполнение резюме, CV, письма-запроса, сопроводительного письма)…………………………………………………………………………………58

Приложение I

(Составление делового письма на английском языке)………………………….….87

Приложение II

(Тесты итогового контроля знаний)…………………………………………………93

Приложение III

(Тексты для реферативного перевода и составления аннотации)……………………………………………………………………..………107

Библиографический список…………………………………………………………124

Оглавление……………………………………………………………………..… …125

Заключение…………………………………………………………………………...126

 

 

Заключение

 

Данное пособие содержит информацию, необходимую студентам, обучающимся на Автодорожном факультете, и способствует формированию навыка основ делового общения на английском языке в устной и письменной форме с использованием специализированной лексики.

Рекомендуется для использования на практических занятиях по дисциплинам «Деловой английский язык», «Практикум по английскому языку» со студентами

2-х курсов специальностей «Технология транспортных процессов» и «Эксплуатация транспортных машин и комплексов» при подготовке к сдаче итогового экзамена.

Настоящее пособие может быть использовано как для аудиторной, так и для самостоятельной работы студентов, при дистанционном обучении, на дневном и заочном отделениях, магистров и аспирантов, для всех, кто в максимально короткий срок стремиться овладеть основами делового профессионального общения на английском языке.