First thinnings; growing conditions; integration; pruning; tree trunks; wildlife

Habitat.

1. Foresters who practice sustainable forest management focus on the

… of ecological, social and economic values.

2. The recommendation for birch stand regeneration is 60—80 years,

but it can be regenerated earlier if the … are stout enough.

3. In most cases, regeneration is intended to create a mixed forest, in

which the … species is pine or spruce, with birch in a complementary role.

4. The main tree species and regeneration method used are chosen

primarily on the basis of soil type and ….

5. Gentler soil-preparation methods have been adopted in recent years

and … has been almost completely abandoned.

6. The main changes in tending stands are that now the aim is to have

more hardwoods and to delay … of the young stand.

7. Undergrowth is removed with a …; herbicides are nowadays rarely

used.

8. Depending on … and species, a stand is usually thinned 1—3 times

during a rotation.

9. … ought to be carried out considerably more often than at present.

10. Second and subsequent thinnings cut the … to 450—550 trees

per hectare and these trees are allowed to grow on until harvesting.

11. Ecological thinning is to increase growth of selected trees, favoring

development of … (such as hollows) rather than focusing on increased

timber yields.

12. … is the removal of the lower branches of the young trees so

clear knot free wood can subsequently grow over the branch stubs.

Exercise 4. Many verbs take prepositional objects. It is recommended

to memorise such verbs as word groups. Translate the sentences with some

of such verbs and nouns related to verbs.

1. The scientific study of forest species and their interaction with the

environment is referred to as forest ecology, while the management of forests

is often referred to as forestry. 2. Foresters who practice sustainable

forest management focus on the integration of ecological, social and economic

values. 3. The concept of forest management has acquired a broader

content than it used to have and now relates more to caring for the forest

46

environment as an integrated totality. 4. In the event of enough seedlings

failing to spring up spontaneously, expensive and labour-intensive efforts

to redress the matter — such as supplementary planting and removing

grass and other undergrowth — must be resorted to. 5. This involves removing

shrubs and other undergrowth likely to interfere with the growth

of the main species. 6. Depending on growing conditions and species, a

stand is usually thinned 1—3 times during a rotation. 7. Forest management

has changed considerably over the last few centuries, with rapid

changes from the 1980s onward, culminating in a practice now referred to

as sustainable forest management. 8. The alternatives now chosen have the

farthest-reaching effects on both wood production and environmental protection.

9. Regeneration is an inseparable aspect of sustainable use of forests.

10. There is growing interest in using biomass obtained when older

seedling stands and young forests are thinned as fuel.

TEXT 2. FOREST REGENERATION PRACTICES

Read text 2 and 1) give definitions to the words in italics and 2) find the answers

to the following questions:

- What are the major functions of the forest?

- What forest regeneration practices are foresters involved in?

- What is the difference between reforestation and afforestation?

- What are the advantages and disadvantages of natural forest regeneration (of

managed regeneration)?

- What is the main purpose of plantations?

Forest ecosystems have come to be seen as one of the most important

components of the biosphere, and forestry has emerged as a vital field of

science, applied art, and technology.

Sustainable forest management means following ecologically sound

practices that maintain the forest ecosystems' integrity, productivity, resilience

and biodiversity. That involves sustaining a wide range of ecological

processes through which plants, animals, microorganisms, soil, water and

air interact.

As a result of these processes, forests provide many functions essential

to life on this planet. They maintain the chemical balance of soil, air

and water, stabilize the climate, recycle nutrients, break down pollutants,

clean the air and water, and are vital to watershed protection, soil formation,

carbon storage and the habitat for wildlife. The products of forest

growth may be harvested on a sustainable basis, and even enhanced

through silvicultural practices, as long as the forests' inherent biological

limits are respected.

47

Forest regeneration is the act of renewing tree cover by establishing

young trees naturally or artificially, generally promptly after the previous

stand or forest has been removed. The method, species, and density are

chosen to meet the goal of the landowner. Forest regeneration includes

practices such as changes in tree plant density through human-assisted

natural regeneration, enrichment planting, changes in tree genetics or tree

species. Human-assisted natural regeneration means establishment of a

forest age class from natural seeding or sprouting after harvesting through

selection cutting, shelter (or seed-tree) harvest, soil preparation, or restricting

the size of a clear-cut stand to secure natural regeneration from surrounding

trees. Enrichment planting means increasing the planting density

(i. e., the numbers of plants per hectare) in an already growing forest stand.

Silvicultural regeneration methods combine both the harvest of the

timber on the stand and re-establishment of the forest. The proper practice

of sustainable forestry should mitigate the potential negative impacts, but

all harvest methods will have some impacts on the land and residual stand.

The practice of sustainable forestry limits the impacts such that the values

of the forest are maintained in perpetuity.

Reforestation is the restocking of existing forests and woodlands

which have been depleted, with native tree stock. The term reforestation

can also refer to afforestation, the process of restoring and recreating areas

of woodlands or forest that once existed but were deforested or otherwise

removed or destroyed at some point in the past. The resulting forest can

provide both ecosystem and resource benefits and has the potential to become

a major carbon sink.

Natural reforestation can occur naturally if the area is left largely undisturbed.

Native forests are often resilient and may re-establish themselves

quickly. Conceptually, it involves taking no active role in reforesting

a de-forested area, but rather just letting nature take its course.

Managed reforestation. One debatable issue in managed reforestation

is whether or not the succeeding forest will have the same biodiversity as

the original forest. If the forest is replaced with only one species of tree

and all other vegetation is prevented from growing back, a monoculture

forest similar to agricultural crops would be the result. However, most reforestation

involves the planting of different seedlots of seedlings taken

from the area. More frequently multiple species are planted as well. Another

important factor is the natural regeneration of a wide variety of plant

and animal species that can occur on a clearcut. In some areas the suppression

of forest fires for hundreds of years has resulted in large single aged

and single specied forest stands. The logging of small clearcuts and or prescribed

burning, actually increases the biodiversity in these areas by creat 48

ing a greater variety of treestand ages and species.

Reforestation need not be only used for recovery of accidentally destroyed

forests. In some countries, such as Finland, the forests are managed

by the wood products and pulp and paper industry. In such an arrangement,

like other crops, trees are replanted wherever they are cut. In

such circumstances, the cutting of trees can be carefully done to allow easier

reforestation. In Canada, the wood product and pulp and paper industry

systematically replaces many of the trees it cuts, employing large numbers

of summer workers for treeplanting work.

Plantation. Reforestation is controversial when plantations are established

in place of natural forest. In tropical American nations such as Costa

Rica and Panama, many thousands of acres of ex-cattle pasture are being

planted with economically valuable tropical timber species, often with the

help of generous local government incentives. Unlike in the US and Canada,

where plantations are established for wood pulp and paper, in Costa

Rica and Panama and other nations in Central America, plantations are being

established to grow timber.

For example, in just 20 years, a teak plantation in Costa Rica can produce

up to about 400 m³ of wood per hectare. As the natural teak forests of

Asia become more scarce or difficult to obtain, the prices commanded by

plantation-grown teak grow higher every year. Other species such as mahogany

grow slower than teak in Tropical America but are also extremely

valuable. Faster growers include pine and eucalyptus.

Topical Vocabulary

sustainable [sǩ'steinǩbl] forest management — устойчивое лесоуправление;

watershed protection — охрана водораздела;

soil formation — образование, формирование _______почвы;

carbon storage — хранение; накопление углерода;

habitat for wildlife — место обитания живой природы;

forest growth — рост, прирост леса;

to harvest — заготавливать древесину;

silvicultural ['silvi,kȜlt∫ǩrǩl] practices — лесоводческая практика, деятельность;

previous ['pri:viǩs] stand — предыдущий; предшествующий древостой;

to remove [ri'mu:v] — удалять, устранять;

density — плотность, концентрация, густота;

to meet the goal — удовлетворять, отвечать, соответствовать цели;

landowner ['landǩunǩ] — землевладелец;

human-assisted — с участием человека;

natural regeneration — естественное лесовозобновление, самосев;

enrichment — расширение; увеличение; обогащение;

sprouting — всход; росток; побег; давать ростки, распускаться (о листьях);

49

selection cutting — выборочные рубки;

seed-tree — семенное дерево, семенник;

soil preparation — подготовка земли;

clear-cut — сплошная рубка;

to secure natural regeneration — обеспечивать естественное возобновление;

silvicultural ['silvi,kȜlt∫ǩrǩl] — лесоводческий;

re-establishment of forest — восстановление прежнего леса;

proper practice — правильная, подходящая практика;

sustainable forestry — устойчивое лесное хозяйство;

residual stand [ri'zidjuəl] — остаточный древостой;

restocking (of forest) [,ri:'stǤkǺŋ] — возобновление запасов;

лесовозобновление, лесовосстановление;

native tree stock — фонд местных деревьев;

reforestation [,ri:fǤrǺ'steǺȓǩn] — лесовосстановление; насаждение лесов,

восстановление лесных массивов;

afforestation [a,fǤrǺ'steǺȓǩn] — облесение; посадка леса, лесоразведение;

restoring — восстановление;

deforest [dǺ'fǤrǺst] — вырубить леса; обезлесить;

resulting forest — полученный лес;

benefit — выгода; польза; преимущество; прибыль;

carbon sink — приёмник углерода; колодец, поглощающий углерод;

disturbed [dǺ'stǫ:bd] —нарушенный, возмущённый;

native — местный, родной, исконно присущий;

re-establish — восстанавливаться; восстанавливать;

managed reforestation —управляемое лесовозобновление;

succeeding forest — последующий лес;

original forest — начальный, первоначальный, исходный лес;

monoculture ['mǤnǩu,kȜlt∫ǩ] forest — монокультурный лес;

seedlot — посевной участок (земли);

clear-cut — сплошная рубка; лес, вырубаемый сплошной рубкой;

single aged stand — древостой из деревьев одного возраста;

single specied stand — древостой из деревьев одной породы;

prescribed burning — заданное; предписанное выжигание, сжигание;

to replant [,ri:'pla:nt] — пересаживать (растение); снова засаживать (растениями);

to establish plantations [plan'tei∫n] — основывать, создавать лесопосадки;

teak — тик, тиковое дерево;

mahogany [mǩ'hǤgǩni] — красное дерево;

eucalyptus [,ju:kǩ'liptǩs] — эвкалипт.

EXERCISES

Exercise 5. Match the word (numbers 1—14) with its definition (letters

A—N).

50

1. forest ecology A. removing shrubs and other undergrowth to promote the

growth of the main species

2. sustainable forest

management

B. process of restoring and recreating areas of woodlands

which once existed but were deforested or otherwise removed

or destroyed

3. forest regeneration

C. forest thinning to increase growth of selected trees favouring

the development of wildlife habitat

4. cleaning D. ecologically sound practices that maintain the forest ecosystems'

integrity, productivity, resilience and biodiversity

5. thinning E. art and science of controlling the establishment, growth,

composition, health, and quality of forests

6. monoculture forest

F. removing slowly growing, diseased and poor quality trees,

controlling the amount and distribution of available growing

space

7. pruning G. scientific study of forest species and their interaction with

the environment

8. enrichment planting

H. a forest with only one species of tree and all other tree

vegetation prevented from growing

9. forestry I. restocking of existing depleted forests with native tree

stock.

10. site preparation J. re-establishing a forest, renewing tree cover by establishing

young trees naturally or artificially

11. ecological thinning

K. exposing mineral soil to promote natural sprouting and

give planted seedlings a better chance of thriving

12. reforestation L. removal of the lower branches of the young trees for

growing clear knot-free wood

13. afforestation M. art, science, and practice of studying and managing forests

and plantations and related natural resources

14. silviculture N. increasing the planting density in an already growing forest

stand

Exercise 6. Translate the sentences with attributive word combinations.

1. The forest management operations are becoming ecologically more

and more sound. 2. The current forest biodiversity is the result of longterm

evolution and environmental changes. 3. The resulting restored forest

can provide both ecosystem and resource benefits and has the potential to

become a major carbon sink. 4. The main tree species and regeneration

method used are chosen primarily on the basis of soil type and fertility. 5.

Having hardwoods mixed with the main softwood species improves soil

properties, reduces pest and disease damage and increases biodiversity. 6.

Forest regeneration includes practices such as changes in tree plant density

through human-assisted natural regeneration, enrichment planting,

changes in tree genetics or tree species. 7. In Canada, the wood product

51

and pulp and paper industry systematically replaces many of the trees it

cuts, employing large numbers of summer workers for treeplanting work.

8. Thinning, a silvicultural technique used in forest management, is a stand

manipulation operation designed to modify tree growth. 9. In the seed-tree

regeneration method, 2—12 seed trees per acre (5—30/ha) are left standing

in order to regenerate an even-aged forest. 10. Forest certification assures

the consumer that the paper product is made from wood fibre originating

from a well-managed forest.

Exercise 7. The word one has many functions and uses. Translate the

sentences and comment on the use.

1. Forest ecosystems are one of the most important components of the

biosphere, and forestry has emerged as a vital field of science, applied art,

and technology. 2. One debatable issue in managed reforestation is

whether or not the succeeding forest will have the same biodiversity as the

original one. 3. One third of the world’s forests are used primarily for production

of wood and other forest products. 4. One tree can make a million

matches — one match can burn a million trees. 5. With their small size,

bonsai plants would not technically be 'trees', but one should not confuse

reference to the form of a species with the size or shape of individual

specimens. 6. Clearcutting is one of many silvicultural treatments that alter

the environment for regeneration to optimize harvest. 7. Concepts of “old

growth” vary widely and are not always easily applied or reconcilable with

one another. 8. Occasionally one uses leafy, fragrant twigs of silver birch

to gently beat one self in a sauna. 9. There may be decided differences in

the grain of heartwood and sapwood cut from a large tree, particularly one

that is mature. 10. There are no vessels ("pores") in coniferous wood such

as one sees so prominently in oak and ash, for example. 11. If a heavy

piece of pine is compared with a light specimen it will be seen at once that

the heavier one contains a larger proportion of late wood than the other,

and is therefore considerably darker. 12. Russia occupies one eighth of the

global land area and most of non-tropical Eurasia. 13. The conversion of

virgin forest to managed forest did not just affect the standing volume;

changes were even greater when one considers the structure of the forest.

Exercise 8. Translate the sentences with the Gerund. Define the syntactical

functions (subject, object, attribute, adverbial modifier, part of the

predicate).

1. Preserving biological diversity is naturally one element of sustainable

forest management. 2. Forests tend to decrease the amount of moisture

in the soil by intercepting precipitation, by retaining water in the for 52

est floor, and by transpiration. 3. Removing trees whose growth has been

stunted or which are diseased or otherwise of poor quality gives the others

more room in which to grow. 4. Exposing mineral soil gives planted seedlings

a better chance of thriving and promotes the natural sprouting of, especially,

birch as a supplementary species. 5. Gentler soil-preparation

methods have been adopted in recent years and deep ploughing has been

almost completely abandoned. 6. Interest in controlled burning is reviving,

but the areas on which this method is practised are still small. 7. The

guidelines for tending young stands have been revised in recent years. 8.

Hardwoods also improve the quality of softwoods, especially pine, by r etarding

the growth of branches. 9. Stands of young trees usually need tending

once or twice during their first fifteen years of life. 10. There is growing

interest in using biomass obtained when older seedling stands and

young forests are thinned as fuel.

Exercise 9. Translate the sentences with the Passive Voice. Try to

vary the translation models.

A) 1. Reforestation is the restocking of existing forests and woodlands,

which have been depleted, with native tree stock. 2. Afforestation is

the process of restoring and recreating areas of woodlands or forest that

once existed but were deforested or otherwise removed or destroyed in the

past. 3. Generally conifer stands are regenerated at an age of 60—120

years (depending on growth site). 4. The main tree species and regeneration

method used are chosen primarily on the basis of soil type and fertility.

5. Gentler soil-preparation methods have been adopted in recent years

and deep ploughing has been almost completely abandoned. 6. The guidelines

for tending young stands have been revised in recent years. 7. The

frequency of thinning has been reduced to improve the economy of these

operations and lessen the damage done to standing trees. 8. In tropical

American nations such as Costa Rica and Panama, many thousands of

acres of ex-cattle pasture are being planted with economically valuable

tropical timber species. 9. Unlike in the US and Canada, where plantations

are established for wood pulp and paper, in Costa Rica and Panama and

other nations in Central America, plantations are being established to grow

timber.

B) 1. Forestry may be defined in principle as the management of forests

to insure maximum benefit to mankind. 2. In the event of enough

seedlings failing to spring up spontaneously, expensive and labourintensive

efforts to redress the matter must be resorted to. 3. First thinnings

ought to be carried out considerably more often than at present. 4. The

53

products of forest growth may be harvested on a sustainable basis, and

even enhanced through silvicultural practices, as long as the forests' inherent

biological limits are respected. 5. Reforestation need not be only used

for recovery of accidentally destroyed forests. 6. In such circumstances,

the cutting of trees can be carefully done to allow easier reforestation. 7.

Birch stands can be regenerated earlier if the tree trunks are stout enough.

8. Before the first thinning is done, the lower branches must be pruned

from some or all of the trees, to improve access, lessen fire risk, and aid

the formation of better timber with fewer knots. 9. Both hunting and fishing

need to be taken into consideration since they are naturally connected

to forestry's key environmental considerations.

Exercise 10. Translate the text about forestry and forestry practices

into English, sentence by sentence, and then give your opinion of the suggested

theory.

Лесоводством принято называть теорию и практику лесного хо-

зяйства или деятельности, направленной на наиболее выгодное и по-

стоянное использование леса в интересах людей.

Основной принцип лесоводства — это постоянство пользования

лесом, которое обеспечивается заботой о лесовозобновлении в про-

цессе рубки и сохранении устойчивости лесов. Под устойчивостью

понимается не только противодействие (counteraction) болезням и по-

вреждениям, но и также сохранение почвенного плодородия, биораз-

нообразия и производительности древостоев.

В последние годы лесоводам всех стран приходится уделять все

больше внимания экологической роли леса, что объясняется многими

причинами: чрезмерными рубками леса; неправильным упрощенным

хозяйством, не обеспечивающим лесовосстановление; ослаблением

борьбы с пожарами и болезнями леса; загрязнением атмосферы.

С устойчивостью связано биоразнообразие — видовое, генетиче-

ское, экосистемное. Поскольку лесоведение и лесоводство неразрыв-

но связаны между собой, целесообразно дать определения некоторых

терминов и понятий лесоводства, таких, например, как рубки главно-

го пользования, проводимые в спелых лесах, рубки ухода за лесом,

меры содействия возобновлению леса.

С рубками главного пользования связаны принципиально разные

системы хозяйства: сплошнолесосечная, семенно-лесосечная и выбо-

рочная. Первая основана на применении сплошных рубок, вторая —

постепенных с удалением старого древостоя за несколько приемов и

третья, выборочная, которая применяется в разновозрастном лесу и

обеспечивает постоянное сохранение леса. Постепенная рубка также

54

связана с естественным возобновлением. Сплошнолесосечная систе-

ма включает естественный и искусственный способы лесовозобнов-

ления.

Рубки ухода делят на виды по возрасту древостоев: в молодняках

до 10 лет их называют осветлениями, от 11 до 20 лет — прочистками_______,

21 — 40 лет — прореживаниями и на последнем этапе — проходны-

ми рубками, которые принято заканчивать за 20 лет до главной руб-

ки. В больных древостоях осуществляют санитарные рубки. В лесо-

парковых частях зеленых зон проводят ландшафтные рубки.

Способы возобновления делят на естественные (сохранение под-

роста, оставление семенников, подготовка почвы) и искусственные

(посев и посадка).