Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle

 

A “philosopher” is a person who tries to understand the laws of nature and the universe. A philosopher looks at life by asking such questions as: What qualities make a person good? What type of government best serves the people? What is beauty? How should man be educated? How was the world created? What is love? What laws are fair and just? By seeking answers to these questions, man can improve his knowledge and way of life.

The first great philosophers were Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle. All three lived in Greece several hundred years before the birth of Christ. Their studies and teachings had a great influence on the people of ancient Greece, and continued to influence civilization to modern times. After studying mankind and the universe, the philosophers came to certain conclusions about the laws of nature.

Dictation 6

The Roman Republic

 

In 500 BC, Rome was just one of many small towns in Italy. But by 133 BC, it had gained control of all of Italy and had conquered foreign lands as well. Roman armies won victories in Spain, Greece, Macedonia, Asia Minor, and North Africa.

There were several reasons for the success of the Romans. First, Rome was located in the center of the Mediterranean world. This made it easy for its army and navy to move quickly in any direction. Second, soldiers were courageous and well-trained, and battles were carefully planned ahead of time by able generals. Also, the Romans had the ability to turn their defeated enemies into friends. Eventually, conquered peoples accepted wise and capable Roman rule and the peace that it brought.

The government in the early years of the Roman Republic had three branches – the consuls, the Senate, and the Assembly. Each branch had various powers.

 

Dictation 7

The Gladiators

The Colosseum was a stadium in ancient Rome that could hold 50,000 to 60,000 spectators. Athletes competed against each other in a variety of contests. But the most famous events at the Colosseum involved “gladiators”. Usually two gladiators would appear in front of the crowd and fight one another using swords, daggers, spears, and other weapons. The fight often continued until one person was killed. Red sand was spread over the wooden floor of the arena to soak up and hide spilled blood.

Most gladiators were slaves, although some freemen entered the duels in the hope of winning money and fame. Prisoners of war, criminals, and Christians sentenced to die because of their religious beliefs were forced to enter the arena. Gladiators sometimes fought against each other in groups or in small armies. On other occasions, elephants might fight against tigers, or a man might be pushed into the ring with an angry half-starved lion. Over the centuries, thousands of people were killed in this cruel sport, which many Romans found entertaining. Emperors, and even politicians running for office, would stage the bloody contests.

 

Dictation 8     

The Roman Empire

In AD 395, the Roman Empire was divided into two parts, each having its own emperor. Rome was the western capital and Constantinople the eastern capital. It was hoped that this division would make it easier to govern the huge territory.

The end result, however, was that the Western Roman Empire grew steadily weaker and was eventually overrun by barbarians from northern Europe. The Eastern Roman Empire, later called the Byzantine Empire, prospered and remained strong for another thousand years.

There were many reasons for the collapse of the empire in the West. Emperors regularly lost their lives as army commanders competed for political power. A shrinking population made it more and more difficult to properly manage farms, industry, and the government. Rich people became lazy and showed little interest in Rome's problems. The rest of the people were overtaxed and unhappy with their government's economic policies. Prices increased and trade decreased.

These conditions weakened the empire and opened the way for barbarian invasions after 400 AD. The barbarians were tribes of uncivilized, warlike people. They included the Vandals, Visigoths, Anglo-Saxons, Franks, and Huns. Because of the barbarian invasions, the Western Roman Empire was eventually divided into numerous smaller kingdoms. Gone forever was the power and greatness of Rome, the city that had ruled the Mediterranean world for hundreds of years.

Dictation 9

Ancient Rome

 

Twelve years after Julius Caesar was assassinated, his adopted son Octavian came to power. This happened after a brief civil war between Octavian's forces and the supporters of Mark Anthony and Cleopatra.

Anthony and Cleopatra had met during the years following Caesar’s death. They fell in love and soon were married. In order to marry Cleopatra, Anthony had to divorce his wife, who was the sister of Octavian. Anthony and Cleopatra then became rivals of Octavian for the leadership of Rome. When Anthony and Cleopatra's armies were defeated, both committed suicide. Cleopatra is believed to have taken her life by allowing a poisonous snake to bite her on the arm.

Octavian became as strong a ruler as Julius Caesar had been. When Caesar was the dictator, some people — especially certain members of the Senate – believed that he had too much power. But now people welcomed strong rule by one man, Octavian. They were convinced that it was the only way to have peace and good government.

Unlike Caesar, Octavian took advice from the Senate and gave them various powers and responsibilities. This pleased the senators. Octavian began using the title “Augustus”, a name that in Roman times referred to a very important position. Augustus, however, was more interested in being a good ruler than being an all-powerful one.

During the reign of Augustus, the Roman Republic came to an end and the period of the Roman Empire began. Rome no longer was a republic because elected officials no longer headed the government. The government was now led by an absolute ruler, an “Emperor”. Augustus succeeded, in bringing peace and wise leadership to Rome and its conquered lands. After Augustus, other emperors continued his policies for nearly two hundred years. These were good times for the citizens of Rome. This period came to be known as “Pax Romana”, or Roman Peace.

 

Dictation 10

The Middle Ages. Vocabulary Dictation

1. Раннее средневековье – the Dark Ages

2. Готический/романский стиль – Gothic/Romanesque style

3. Феодальный, феодализм – feudal, feudalism

4. Рискованное существование – perilous existence

5. Принять христианство – to adopt Christianity

6. Вечное прощение/проклятье – eternal grace/damnation

7. Крестовый поход – Crusade

8. Наследственный – hereditary

9. Требовать выкуп – to extract ransom

10.   Архитектурный фон – architectural background

11.   На переднем/заднем плане – in the foreground/in the background

12.   Классические греческие и римские формы – classical Greek and Roman values and forms

13.   Неизвестные ремесленники – anonymous craftsmen

14.   Буйный, бурный – turbulent/tempestuous

15.   Ужасная инквизиция – dread Inquisition

16.   Грабить – to sack

17.   Родина Барокко – the birthplace of the Baroque

18. Ощущение геометрической ясности и порядка – a feeling for geometrical clarity and order

19.   Суматоха, беспорядок – turmoi l

20.   Чувственность – sensuality

21.    Демонстрировать сдержанность – to show restraint

22.    Освящать церковью – to sanctify by the Church

23.    Витраж – stained-glass window

24.    Вести разрушительную войну – to wage a destructive war   

 

 

 

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