Advertisements and Announcements

The function of advertisements and announcements, like that of brief news, is to inform the reader. There are two basic types of advertisements and announcements in the modem English newspaper: classified and non-classified.

In classified advertisements and announcements various kinds of information are arranged according to subject-matter into sections, each bearing an appropriate name. As for non-classified advertisements and announcements, the variety of language form and subject-matter is so great that hardly any essential features common to all may be pointed out. The reader's attention is attracted by every possible means: typographical, graphical and stylistic, both lexical and syntactical. Here there is no call for brevity, as the advertiser may buy as much space as he chooses.

The Editorial

Editorials are intermediate phenomenon bearing the stamp of both the newspaper style and the publicistic style.

The function of the editorial is to influence the reader by giving an interpretation of certain facts. Editorials comments on the political and other events of the day. Their purpose is to give the editor's opinion and interpretation of news published and suggest to the reader that it is the correct one. Like any publicistic writing, editorials appeal not only to the reader's mind but to his feelings as well.

                                              Scientific Prose

The language of science is governed by the aim of the functional style of scientific prose, which is to prove a hypothesis, to create new concepts, to disclose the internal laws of existence, development, relations between phenomena, etc. The language means used, therefore, tend to be objective, precise, unemotional, devoid of any individuality; there is a striving for the most generalized form of expression.

The first and most noticeable feature of the style in question is the logical sequence of utterances with clear indication of their interrelation and interdependence. The second and no less important one is the use of terms specific to a certain branch of science. The third characteristic feature is sentence pattern of three types: postulatory, argumentative, and formulative. The fourth observable feature is the use of quotations and references. The fifth one is the frequent use of foot-notes of digressive character. The impersonality of scientific writing can also be considered a typical feature of this style.

The characteristic features enumerated above do not cover all the peculiarities of scientific prose, but they are the most essential ones.

                                                                     Official Documents

The style of official documents, like other styles, is not homogeneous and is represented by the following substyles or variants:

1. The language of business document;

2. The language of legal documents;

3. That of diplomacy;

4. That of military documents.

This style has a definite communicative aim and accordingly has its own system of interrelated language and stylistic means. The main aim of this type of communication is to state the condition binding two parties in an undertaking.

In other words the aim of communication in this style of language is to reach argument between two contracting parties. Even protest against violations of statutes, contracts, regulations, etc., can also be regarded as a form by which normal cooperation is sought on the basis of previously attained concordance.

As in the case with the above varieties this style also has some peculiarities:

1. The use of abbreviations, conventional symbols, contractions;

2. The use of words in their logical dictionary meaning;

3. Compositional patterns of the variants of the style.

4. Absence of any emotiveness.

 

Lecture 9.

The most general (binary) division of language.

The questions are based on Y.M. Skrebnev’s “Fundamentals of English Stylistics”, 2000.

1. Specify the following binary divisions (p. 180):

a) ‘informal’ – ‘formal’

b) ‘colloquial’ – ‘literary’

c) ‘oral’ – written’

d) ‘written’ – ‘colloquial’

e) ‘written’ – ‘oral’

What is the common/different feature of these oppositions?

2. What sublanguages are referred to the socially regulated ones? (p.183)

3. What are the peculiar characteristics of the business letters? (pp. 185-186)

4. Specify the major features of the language and style of the diplomatic and legal spheres. (pp. 187-194)

 

Development of the Rhetoric

Communication is a vital part of human existence. It is generally accepted that the best way to preserve or create a free democratic society which guarantees its members' rights and privileges is to learn to communicate effectively in public and in private. Stipulating the aim of this graduation dissertation that is to decode argumentative and persuasive means in public speaking let us first dwell upon what public speaking is.

According to R. Vicar “public speaking refers to presentation of a speech to an audience of more than one. It is characterized by one person's holding central attention for a period of time. No matter how many variations in public speaking there might be effective public speaking is based on conscious planning and psychological impact to an audience, and can thus be described as rhetorical talk” [Vicar -1994].

Doubtless, rhetoric is a very helpful instrument in terms of mastering effective speaking technology. "The golden rule of public speaking is that a person should always keep his audience in mind" [Nash -1989].

In other words, every speech must meet the expectations of the audience, it must be tailored to suit their needs, interests and level. Address the audience's needs and engage their interest, using language they will understand.

To get more profound insight in persuasive public speaking, let us have, first of all, a look on rhetorical theory, its name, survey the development of the theory of persuasion and rhetoric from its origins in ancient Greece to its contemporary contributors.

The overview of rhetoric spans nearly two and half millennia, unable to represent everything we will only touch the highlights in the development of rhetorical theory and components of rhetorical effectiveness. First, let us dwell upon what the term rhetoric means. James Benjamin in his work "Principles, Elements and types of persuasion" determines rhetoric as "the science of speaking well on civil questions, eloquence, a flow of words, designed to persuade people to the just and the good. The name rhetoric is Creek, from the word "retoresin" that is to say a flow of expression. For the Greeks, they call expressions - "rests", and an orator - "retor" [Benjamin - 1991].

Taking into account the definition of the rhetoric suggested by Benjamin James we can say that rhetoric is the art of persuasion, the art of using symbols to adjust ideas to people. If we look back we will see that historically rhetoric has been a fundamental part of civilization. It was one of the original seven liberal arts (rhetoric, dialectic, grammar, music, arithmetic, geometry, and astronomy) that formed the basis for higher education for centuries. "There were five major parts to the study of rhetoric: invention (the systematic discovery of ideas for speaking or writing), arrangement (that is, organization), style, memory (how to memorize in the age before writing was common), and delivery" [Hochschield -1995].

The rocky soil of the Mediterranean country we call Greece rise to the core of Western civilization, the ancient rhetoric. “An important area of education for the ancient Greeks was the study of persuasion. They emphasized this study, called rhetoric, because success in Athenian society was based on the ability to convince other people in the courts, in political settings, and in social settings. Because citizens in legal disputes were expected to plead their own cases, the ability to use rhetoric effectively was crucial if justice was to prevail. Because citizens were expected to participate in their governments, the skill of using rhetoric was necessary if government was to follow the best course of action. Because effective discourse encompassed both intellectual development and entertainment, rhetoric also came to be associated with the social functions of persuasion" [Benjamin -1991].

In brief, rhetoric flourished for very practical purposes. In the following extracts we shall consider the main contributions of rhetorical theory to persuasion, beginning with ancient Athens: "Socrates was a central figure in ancient Athens because his ideas and his skills as a teacher heavily influenced his student Plato, who in turn influenced his student, Aristotle, and later generations. But Socrates was also a central figure in the early development of the study of persuasion. Prior to Socrates, the practice of rhetoric was emphasized in the earliest writings of the Greeks, and we classify these earliest rhetoricians as Pre-Socratics.

The work of W. Nash gave us one interesting fact chat in Homer's famous work the "Odyssey and Iliad", composed around 890 B.C., there are many examples of the importance of effective rhetoric. The rhetorical speeches in these works served not only as examples of persuasion but also as sources of the cultural heritage to be passed down through the generations of listeners. Skill in the art of rhetoric was given as much respect as skill in the art of war. Consider, for example, the defined not only by their physical ability but also by heir eloquence" [Nash – 1989].

Protagoras, one more contributor of the Pre-Socratic period, who lived from 481 to 511 B.C. Protagoras made two main contributions to the rhetoric: One was the concept that "man is the measure of all things" [Davy -1985], this is important because it places an emphasis on human decision making. In a court case, for example, it is the jury who decides guilt or innocence. In a legislative assembly, it is the members who decide what form of action will be taken. In the marketplace, it is the customer who determines the success of a product or service.

To finalize this opinion one may say that, how human beings decide and what motivates them make up the central concern of rhetoric. Protagoras also suggested that in any rhetorical encounter there are at least two sides. "This is important because rhetoric is an art that can be used by either party in a dispute – it can be used by the barriers to advocate stricter gun control and it can be used by the National Rifle Association to advocate the right to bear arms" [Quote Nash - 1989]. Protagoras is often called the father of debate because he advanced this rhetorical principle.

Another indisputably important figure in the history of the rhetoric is Socrates who appeared as a central character in the dialogues written by Plato (428-348 B.C.). To Plato: "the art of persuasion as a part of rhetoric was a sham art that could make the good appear bad, the important seem unimportant, the guilty appear innocent".

In later dialogues, Plato offered a more moderate position. He also placed an emphasis on audience psychology and organizing ideas to meet the type of audience. In the dialogue Plato had Socrates say: "Until a man knows the truth of the several particulars of which he is writing or speaking, and is able to define them as they are, and having defined them again to divide them until they can be no longer divided, and until in like manner he is able to discern the nature of the soul, and discover the different modes of discourse which are adapted to different natures, and to arrange and dispose them in such a way that the simple form of speech may be addressed to the simpler nature, and the complex and composite to the more complex nature until he has accomplished all this, he will be unable to handle arguments according to rules of art, as far as their nature allows them to be subjected to art, either for the purpose of teaching or persuading" [Davy - 1985].

In other words, acceptable rhetoric is based on truth and is adapted to the specific nature of the audience.

Among the other historical and worldwide known historic people is Aristotle. "Aristotle (384-322 B.C.) was more tolerant of the art of rhetoric. Aristotle suggested that far from being a sham art, it was a useful art that had four important values:

• first, he argued that truth will prevail if given an equal chance;

• second, he claimed that rhetoric could teach people who are not trained;

• third, he suggested that rhetoric is valuable because it does not judge a case-it is an art that can be used by both sides in a dispute.

• Finally, he argued that rhetoric is useful in defending yourself against attack^” [Quote Vicar - 1994:158].

Aristotle also suggested the following broad classification of persuasive means which are artistic proof and can be used in a dispute, during the writing the political speeches, defending yourself and in other cases. This consisted of three types: 1. '"investigate the character of the source; 2. analyse the emotions of the audience; 3. and enquire about the logic of the case.

Aristotle dabbed rhetoric as "the art of discovering, in any given case, the available means of persuasion. In Aristotle's view, argument by example is a particularly useful and unique mean for persuasion because it provides a sense of specificity to the case"" [See Wright -1987].

If we follow the lead of the Greeks, we will see that the Romans adopted and adapted the basis on rhetoric as a central part of both education and public life. While there are many examples of Roman rhetoricians, the most famous is Cicero (106 B.C.-43 B.C.).

Cicero is recognized both for his theoretical works on persuasion for his ability to practice the art of rhetoric in speeches that studied as examples of excellence in oratory. Roman rhetoricians are credited with having organized concepts of rhetoric into four "canons" or bodies of principles:

"'organization (think about the issue), style (generate the ideas), delivery (provide special techniques for the ideas into effective words), and memory (to make a persuasive speech)".

The next stage in the development of rhetoric belongs to the medieval rhetoric.

The Middle Ages is a period of Western history that extended from roughly 500 A.D. to about 1500 A.D. "During this period, the art of rhetoric flourished in four forms: the continuation of the classical tradition, the art of preaching, the practical art of letter writing, and the art of poetics" [Freeburn -1995].

Rhetoric is an art of persuasive discourse continued throughout the middle Ages. A prime example of this tradition can be found in the works of Alcuin (735-804), advisor to the Emperor Charlemagne. "The work is largely an interpretation of Cicero-it closely followed the concepts typically discussed in Roman rhetoric".

During this period of time A. Wright pointes out that rhetoric consists of three genres: "deliberative rhetoric aimed at politics; forensic rhetoric concerned with legal pleading; and epideictic rhetoric aimed at praise or blame^” [Wright -1987].

The expansion of this period brought a considerable significance to the whole world since there has been a second tradition introduced what has become known as the art of preaching. "The most influential figure in this genre of medieval rhetoric was St. Augustine (354-430 A.D.). Augustine is recognized as extending classical precepts of rhetoric into new areas essential to the church".

Invention became a matter of interpreting and expressing sacred works. Letter writing was the third genre of rhetoric adapted to the demands of medieval society. To communicate over long distances required extensive use of written communication. To meet this demand the art of rhetoric was expanded from speeches to written forms of communication. The final area of rhetoric influential in the Middle Ages was the art of verse writing.

While we consider the term "grammar" to mean the study of syntax, for medieval rhetoricians the term was much broader and included what we now refer to as the study of literature as well as sentence structures. This "grammatical" genre of medieval rhetoric placed an emphasis on studying both the traditional Latin rules of syntax and the composition of Latin verse.

The next stage is to turn to the following integral part of the rhetoric’s growth - the modern rhetoric. The modern period of rhetorical theory extends from the Renaissance to the turn of the twentieth century. Generally this was a period that witnessed new developments in rhetorical theory with an emphasis on the psychology of the receivers.

“Francis Bacon (1561-1626), the English philosopher credited with developing the modern scientific method, is also a pivotal figure in the re-emergence of rhetoric and psychology. In Bacon’s view rhetoric was defined as the application of reason to imagination for the better moving of the will [Freeburn - 1995:97]. Francis Bacon advocated a faculty psychology, a belief that the mind is composed of aspects or faculties that operate in different areas. George Campbell (1719-1796) was another key figure, in modern rhetoric. His Philosophy of Rhetoric revised the classical concept of rhetoric as deliberative, forensic, or epideictic in favour of a classification based on psychological effects:

• common knowledge - which may be defined as what is generally known that it can safely be asserted without the support of examples or statistical data;

• another type of specific evidence is analogy - it is used for clarification and emphasis;

• and the third sort of evidence is statistical - it is often used in the political speeches in order to make them more believable, acceptable and less criticized" [Ibid.: 100-101]

It is necessary to point out that in our graduation dissertation we will try to investigate the political speeches with a strong concern, paying special attention to the facts mentioned above and apply them to the practical part of our work.

To embrace larger horizons of contemporary rhetoric let us switch to another important figure, - and namely to the Belgian philosopher Chaim Perelman (1912-1984). In Perelman's view, "rhetoric aims at gaining the adherence of the listeners minds" [Hockschild - 1996:359], and all of the elements of rhetoric are designed to accomplish that end. Chaim Perelman suggested that the interaction of arguments is a powerful technique of rhetoric. Chaim Perelman recognized that persuaders do not rely on a single argument in seeking to gain the adherence of the receiver. As a result, arguments interact to influence the audience. He recommended carefully ordering the arguments so as to maximize the acceptance of the thesis.

Thus, summarizing the data regarding the rhetoric's development it is necessary to say that we undertook the daunting task of condensing 2500 years of Western rhetoric into a few pages. From the ancient theorists, we discovered the origins of Western rhetoric and derived the important principles of rhetoric as a science and an art that deals with practical matters of persuasion; we also found out that Socrates defined the art of persuasion as a sham art that make an important seem unimportant, Cicero is recognized both for his theoretical works on persuasion for his ability to practice the art of rhetoric in speeches that studied as examples of excellence in oratory. Plato placed an emphasis on the audience psychology, while Aristotle paid special attention to the character source, emotions and logic. He also determined argumentation as one of the available means of persuasion, the same case we can observe in the contemporary rhetoric, since such representatives of this period as Kennern Burke, Chaim Perelman also suggested that the interaction of argument is a powerful and persuasive mean of the rhetoric. Rhetoric was applied to practical matters involved in politics, law, and the society.

From the medieval area we discovered that rhetoric was not limited to the three traditional genres, but was expanded to include the art of preaching. Medieval studies also contributed the recognition that rhetoric employs aspects of both logic and poetics to accomplish these practical ends.

Finally, the varieties of medieval rhetoric showed that rhetoric is not limited to the spoken word, but that persuaders employ writing and other symbolic means as well as speeches in their efforts to influence others.

Modern rhetoric also acknowledges the importance of psychology in creating effective persuasion. A deeper understanding of how audiences think and react gives persuaders better insight into how to make persuasion effective for a particular audience. Contemporary rhetoricians like Kennern Burke and Chaim Perelman employed the social, cultural, and ethical aspects of persuasion. We should see persuasion as an interaction through symbolization that seeks to link the speaker with the receiver.

 

Components of Rhetorical Effectiveness and Persuasion

 

Expertise in communication can hardly be achieved without the awareness of the basic principles of communication, its nature, structure and forms. Traditionally four basic components of communication are singled out: “communication situations, consideration for others, how communication operates and effective performance” [Quasthoff -1994].

A communication situation can be denned as any contact between people, in whom it is possible to accomplish goals. According to Mandel, every communication act has a particular goal or goals, which can be roughly outlined in the following way:

• “people communicate to give or to get information;

• people communicate to offer ideas, to express opinions, to change minds;

• people communicate to change other people's behavior;

• people communicate to create a mood.

With regard to the subject, audience and occasion, in other words depending on the particular speech situation, it is always possible to single out one primary goal and secondary objectives.

“The second component of effective communication, consideration for others, consists in the ability to discover the needs and concerns of others in order to adapt to them. It is important to be able to give the other person a good reason to listen to you” [Mandel -1997].

It is also essential in terms of effective speaking to be aware of how communication operates. Communication means sharing ideas and information. In fact the actual process of communication is fairly complicated. It is hardly possible to transmit your ideas directly into other people's minds:

“First of all the speaker must be very clear about what information he wants to get across and what language to use with regard to the speech situation and the participants involved. In any event there is always a chance that he will be misunderstood because of various communication barriers.

The speaker must remember that communication is not a one-way process and that the feedback from the listener will show how his message was interpreted”. Thus, it is important to understand that communication is not static and rigid, that it is a dynamic, flexible process, in which one has to be alert, adaptable and considerate.

“The fourth basic component of effective communication is effective performance which has got to do with organizing and presenting information. It follows from the outline of effective communication components that communication is a fairly sophisticated process that involves an interrelated and interdependent group of elements working together as a whole to achieve a desired outcome of goal”.

Traditionally rhetoric is defined as the art of finding in the given case all the available means of persuasion. In other words, rhetoric refers to intentional, purposeful speech, designed to achieve a goal. Presumably, most of our speeches are rhetorical, because they are characterized by a certain purpose, but in certain forms of communication, in public speaking, for instance, the component of persuasion is especially marked.

Since rhetoric both as a science and as an art is highly utilitarian, its ideas and approaches appear to be quite applicable to public speaking. In fact to acquire expertise in public speaking one should become rhetorically effective.

According to W. R. Janney in practical terms rhetorical effectiveness is based on the following requirements: "a speaker must be able to get attention; to hold attention, be clear; support your ideas with proof; use appropriate language; give his listener a chance to respond; be able to access your effectiveness accurately" [ Janney -1996]. To understand how persuasion works and how to make persuasive, effective communication it requires the study of the various definitions of the word "persuasion", where we will try to understand the essence of this process and determine what goals it has in the communication process and give our own definition.

"Definitions are like diamonds - the greater the clarity, the greater the value" [Skyum - 1994]. Definitions give us starting points for understanding, so it is important that we begin by clearly defining key terms in our study of persuasion.

Like all central aspects of human life, persuasion has been variously denned; the following definition belongs to James Benjamin. He defines "persuasion as a transactional process among two or more persons whereby the management of symbolic meaning reconstructs reality, resulting in voluntary change in beliefs, attitudes, and/or behaviours" [Benjamin-1991].

W. R. Janney proposes another clarification, he emphasizes that "persuasibility refers to situations in which a source gives his position on an issue and... presents various arguments, based on emotional or rational considerations, why this position is correct" [ Janney - 1996].

P. Skyum elucidates "persuasion as "the co-creation of a state of identification or alignment between a source and a receiver that results from the use of symbols" [Skyum - 1994], while Stanely Deetz specifies persuasion as "communication intended to influence choice" [Deetz -1989].

According to M. Alvin persuasion is also defined as a "process of communication designed to modify the judgments of others, and... success at modifying the judgments of others in intended directions" [Alvin -1996].

Robert Freeburn formulates the definition in the following way: persuasion is considered to be "a change process resulting mostly from shared, symbolic thinking activity" [Freeburn -1995].

At this point we want to suggest our own definition: we consider that persuasion as a powerful tool in communicative process intended to influence people physiologically, to motivate them; the appeal to their hearts and emotions produces a strong hypnotic reaction in a way that the message of a speech is fixed, the directives are followed and acted on.

Thus, we have given and covered a number of definitions and at this point we would also agree with the clarifications suggested by Deetz and Alvin, or with any other linguists but here a question may arise what do these diverse, yet related, definitions have in common? There seems to be general agreement that, however persuasion isdefined, it involves the strategic construction of symbols designed to influence others. Exactly what that means requires further elaboration and in order to understand this point, we suggest to scrutinize the works of such scientists as: N. McNaughton - "Biology and emotion", A. Nacss – "Communicatiion and argument", J. Benjamin - "Principles, Elements and types of persuasion".

First, it is clear that persuasion is a communication process. Process means that persuaders are engaged in an activity. Persuasion is not static. It is dynamic and can be shaped by a variety of forces. It is of primary importance to point out the following aspects of human communication that can be involved in such communication process as:

• "Intrapersonal communication canters on internal communication activities such as the role of communication in thinking and listening. Clearly, persuasion plays a role in our communication to ourselves when we are getting ready for a test or a job interview, for example, we will psych ourselves up. 'To do that is to engage in self-persuasion, convincing ourselves that we can do well or that wearethe best candidate for the job. Such self-persuasion is the basis of a modem approach to personal problem solving called Rational Emotive Therapy. We engage in self-persuasion in creating and in changing our emotional reactions to events" [McNaughton -1989].

As noted psychologist Dr. David Bums, "If you want to feel better, you must realize that your thoughts and attitudes - not external events - -create your feelings. You can learn to change the way you think, feel and behave in the here and now. That simple but revolutionary principle can help you change your life" [Quote Naess - 1989].

What goes on within us as we are persuaded is also a topic of interest for intrapersonal communication. Concepts like attitude, belief, and value are central to an understanding of persuasion. Such concepts describe intrapersonal dimensions of human persuasion. Psychological factors such as attention, cognition, and emotional response are all intrapersonal elements of persuasion. Our interactions with others are directed toward goals and to accomplish those goals we must persuade and be persuaded.

• "Group communication, where several people interact and here again persuasion is omnipresent. In problem-solving groups, for example, we must advocate a specific solution we believe best meets the criteria for the optimal course" [McNaughton -1989].

Lleadership in groups or organizations also requires persuasion. In Presidential Power Richard Neustadt wrote: "That of all of the powers, the ultimate power of the president is "the power to persuade" [See Benjamin -1991]. Whether one is the president of the United States, the chief executive officer of a corporation, or the leader of a discussion up, effective leadership is a matter of persuasive communication.

It goes without saying that persuasion is also vital to public communication. Preachers, teachers, and politicians influence us through public speaking. Architects propose designs; sports figures pitch products and ideas in public appearances; lawyers address judges and juries.

According to James Benjamin "mass communication also provides paradigms of persuasion. Whether we use electronic media like radio or television; print media like newspapers, magazines, or direct mail; or newer technologies like the fax or computer networks, persuasion pervades the media. Advertising agencies and public relations firms are clearly groups that attempt to persuade using mass communication channels.

Moreover, he considers that persuasion involves symbolism because a defining characteristic of human beings is the ability to manipulate symbols. We use the concept of symbols rather than words because the process of persuasion is not carried out by words alone. Tone of voice, appearance of typeface, photographs, icons and images - all can play a part in persuasion" [Benjamin -1991].

Persuasion is deliberate and influences. We intentionally manipulate symbols to accomplish our persuasive goals. While it is true that we may, from time to time, unintentionally influence others, persuasion has connotations of a conscious effort.

Thus, we have examined various definitions of such notion as persuasion suggested by different scientists: W. R. Janney, P. Skyum, M. Alvin, and Robert Freeburn, S. Deetz and assigned our own definition. We believe that persuasion is not coercion; influence is not control. Persuasion may influence our decision to marry but it does not make for a shotgun wedding. All that a persuader really does is to try to influence the decisions of the receiver. Persuasion may influence us to vote for a politician and namely that is why let us switch to the next point of our graduation dissertation: how to write a persuasive speech.