Chapter 1.Stylistic analysis of the text.

ОТЧЕТ

 

об учебной практике

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Период прохождения практики с 19.01.20

 

Руководитель практики                                                 Катаева Ж.М.

 

 

Выполнила: студентка гр. КГП-18                           Муравьёва Т.С.

 

 

Караганда 2020

 

Contents

 

Introduction	3
Chapter 1.Stylistic analysis of the text.	5
Chapter 2. General theoretical questions of translation.	8
Chapter 3. Lexical transformations.	10
Chapter 4. Grammatical transformations.	15
Chapter 5. Examples of transformations by texts	21
Conclusions	51
Bibliography	54
Glossary	56
Appendix	57

 

Introduction.

Among the urgent problems of modern translation, the development of such a field as the translation of scientific and technical texts takes an important place, in connection with the accelerating scientific and technical process this type of translation is becoming more and more in demand. The translation of a foreign language text is always associated with many difficulties that arise in the way of an interpreter. When translating, all the subtleties of a foreign language must be taken into account. The task of an interpreter is to feel the style of the article, to convey all the subtleties of the translated material without distorting the original source. One of the most complicated types of translation is a scientific and technical translation, since for an adequate interpretation of a material in another language; not only linguistic but technical knowledge is required as well. Technical translation is the translation of texts of technical subjects, in particular, documents of different specialization, all kinds of reference literature, dictionaries, product conformity certificates, operating instructions, engineering plans, scientific and technical articles, business contracts and other commercial technical proposals. Authors of scientific works avoid the usage of many expressive means of language, in order not to violate the basic principle of the scientific and technical language — the accuracy and clarity of the presentation. From the point of view of the vocabulary, the main feature of technical translation is the maximum saturation of the special terminology that is characteristic of a given branch of knowledge.

Аn obligatory condition of an adequate translation of a scientific text is the ability to analyze the grammatical structure of foreign sentences to ascertain translation difficulties and construct sentences while translating according to the norms of a language and the genre of translation.

Thus, the general competence of a teacher envisages a good knowledge of the grammatical specific characteristics of the languages from which and into which the translation is done, the principles of the theory of translation in general and the translation of a medical scientific text, in particular, as well as translation adequacies in the field of grammar and vocabulary, translation transformations, ways of rendering various linguistic and speech phenomena.

Of special importance for a translator of a scientific text is the knowledge of the subject of translation, i.e. the ability of orientation oneself in that subject branch to which a text intended for translation belongs, in our case – different sublanguages of medicine, for example, such as Therapy, Surgery, Traumatology, Ophthalmology, Cardiology etc.

While translating a comprehension of the content of the sentences and semantic relations between sentences, as well as the meanings of metatexual elements, participating in the organization of a text, are necessary. The largest complex of grammatical problems of translation is naturally connected with understanding the syntactical structure and the morphological composition of sentences as linguistic elements and direct carriers of subject information.

The fact that the English and Ukrainian languages belong to different branches of the Indo-European family of languages and to different structural types specifies divergences in their structure, sets of their grammatical categories, forms and constructions that make up a large group of grammar difficulties of translation.

Another category of difficulties is stipulated by different volume of the content of similar forms and construction. For example, the form of the present form of the verb-predicate in the Ukrainian language corresponds by its content to the English corresponding forms of the Present Indefinite, Present Continuous and partially to the Present Perfect; the form of the Genitive Case of an Ukrainian noun may correspond by its grammatical meaning to the English preposition  noun construction (of + n) or the form of the Common Case of the noun in a preposition to another noun.

Grammatical difficulties of translating are inherent to those grammatical phenomena of the language of the text of the original that have different functional characteristics from the corresponding grammatical phenomena of the language of the translation, e.g. the singular and plural forms of the noun, available both in Ukrainian and English, however the forms of individual nouns may not coincided (English knowledge is used only in the singular form, but may be translated by both the singular and plural form).

Certain difficulties of translation of grammatical phenomena arise in case of diverse frequency of their use in different languages. Thus, for example, the frequence of the forms of the Passive Voice of the verb-predicate is considerably higher than in the Ukrainian language, and, thus, while translating such forms, one has to change them into the forms of the Active Voice. Such difficulties are caused by the divergencies in linguostylistic standards of text of the language of the original and that of the translation.

In the process of translating translators come across with grammatical homonyms (that, one), the peculiarities of expressing the parts of the sentence in both languages (first of all the subject and predicate), the absence of certain grammatical phenomena in one of the language (e.g. the absence in the Ukrainian language of such a verbal form as the Gerund), of forms or constructions (e.g. the absence in the Ukrainian language of the forms of the verb in Perfect and Perfect Continuous), of complex infinitive and participle constructions, such as Complex Object, Complex Subject, Absolute Participle Construction), the peculiar characteristics of the combinative ability and functioning of word in word combinations and sentences etc.

In order to avoid an inadequate, word-for-word translation (grammatical “over-literal rendering”) it is necessary to apply translating grammatical transformations. As a result a literal translation is adapted to the standards of the language of translation and becomes adequate. Under grammar transformation one envisages a change of the grammatical characteristics of a word, word combination or a sentence in a translation. They differentiate a few grammatical transformations: a transposition or permutation, a replacement or substitution, addition, exclusion, complex transformation, generalization, integral transformation etc.

Conclusion.

I learned a lot in the field of translation, during the practice. I made all my tasks. I made translation in different types of genre.For translating I used some types of dictionaries. Scientific and official – business were the most difficult to translate. Because you have to understand it.During my practice I learnt many new words, terms from the various genres.

Translator's occupation has been believed to be one of the most prestigious and needed professions since ancient times. The first translators appeared in ancient Egypt and were reckoned among the honored members of its society. In ancient Greece, which had close connections with Eastern countries, experts on foreign languages played a special role. But for interpreters, our cultural legacy possibly would lack many parts of the Bible: it's known that the Old Testament was mainly preserved in Greek variant. In ancient Rus, monks-interpreters were very educated men, and Napoleon Bonaparte said that a soldier who knows two languages is worth two. Today, demand for translators and interpreters has reached its highest point.

Nowadays, knowledge of a foreign language without doubt guarantees higher salary and faster promotion track. But, like everything else, translator's job has its own weak points which, unfortunately, become more important every day. So, let's take a look at pros and cons of this respectable profession.

Of course, let's start with positive aspects. Today the statement that to know a foreign language is vital is undoubtedly true. It's true for everyone and everywhere. Vacancies demanding a person with at least basic knowledge of English make up 70% of all the vacancies, thus more-or-less fluently speaking applicant is ensured with job placement. Let alone translators: a certified linguist-translator must speak fluently at least two foreign languages. According to Yuri Aleksandrovitch Razzhivin, dean of the faculty of translation at Moscow State Linguistic University (MSLU) PhD of History and associate professor, 95% of all the graduates of his faculty are employed and work in completely different spheres. Many of them make good careers in prestigious governmental services (Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Russian embassies and missions in foreign countries, etc.), others work for private companies. The rest 5% of the graduates are women on maternity leave, postgraduates and graduates who decided to continue their education abroad. Unfortunately, we failed to get the same rates from Moscow State University (MSU), because they don't collect such statistics. Though, no doubt that they're not unemployed.

Generally, today there are heaps of spheres for the professional translators to work at: they can work either as translators, or, for instance, in spheres of advertising, PR, journalism, or in travel business. They are needed in all the major publishing houses. No wonder, because during the five-year study translators receive not only linguistic education, but also philological. They have fantastic prospects in business sphere. A manager with knowledge of several foreign languages is much more valued than an ordinary one even with greater work experience. To be employed at a foreign company one is required to know perfectly at least English. Salaries in such companies are appropriate: no less than 700$ plus substantial social package and the opportunity of having free medical care in one of the best Moscow clinics.

However, to get access to all these benefits, first of all one has to get linguistic education which is a difficult task. Nowadays, competition for admission to translation faculties sometimes comes up to 30 applicants per place. Besides, admission and further education require substantial expenses. It's clear that secondary school can't provide a student with the necessary high level of foreign language knowledge, thus parents have to employ a private tutor for their children since eighth or ninth grade. A common teacher's lesson of two academic hours costs 10-15$. To employ a lecturer from a major Moscow university cost 20-30$ depending on qualification and teaching experience, and professors or experienced lecturers of the same universities get 50$ per lesson. To be well-prepared for entrance examinations, one have to take two-academic-hours lessons twice a week for at least two years. Not all the parents can afford such an expensive treat.

Admission to the faculty of foreign languages of MSU is believed to be the most difficult challenge, because entrants have to pass a listening-and-comprehension exam besides oral examination and written test, which is possible only for a student who either had been living for a long time abroad or had communicated a lot with native speakers. But both variants are expensive. There is an easier way: to file an application for admission on a paid basis. Price varies: it depends on faculty and university itself and can be from 1500 to 5000$ a year. If a student lacks just a few marks and doesn't get free admission he or she will still to pay the full price for the education.

The easiest way is to enter a private university. Thus you can save not only your nerves, but also money (an academic year costs about 1000$). But the diplomas of private universities are not as valued by the employers as the diplomas of state universities.

A discouraging situation has established in translation agencies. Serious companies in this sphere of business can be counted on the fingers of one hand, and translation services are generally offered by small private companies which fully depend on their customers. An average translator from English and German to Russian is paid no more than 6$ per a page (of course it depends on complexity of text), work of translators from Italian, Scandinavian languages and Eastern Slavic languages costs a bit more expensive, and translators from Arabic, Persian, Chinese, Japanese and Hungarian have even higher job prices – about 9$ a page. Special translations (legal, technical, medical) are the most expensive and the urgent translations are payed double. In most cases, these companies have non-regular customers, so translators receive their pay only when a customer pays for work: money can be remitted in a week, in a month, or even in a half-year.

One more unpleasant moment is that in such translation agencies highly qualified translators have to rival with translators who only have attended some courses of foreign languages. Only an expert can test level of their knowledge, but not every agency has such expert. These so-called "translators" are ready to receive scanty salary for their work and there is an innumerable multitude of such semi-translators on the labor market. They lowered the price of this complicated intellectual work of translator which requires extensive knowledge, experience and patience. Office work is much more profitable: here translator receives monthly wages, but sometimes has to translate in a strict non-stop mode. Furthermore, some employers don't understand what a translator's work is. They often believe that translators must fulfill extra duties of a secretary, manager and assistant administrator. "I have tried to get an office job as a translator twice, - Mariya Lesnina says. - And both times I was disappointed. Along with translations my first boss overloaded me either with some secretarial duties like receiving telephone calls, or with managerial – like working with customers. Director of the second company had even asked me to teach him German. It was difficult to explain him that words "translator" and "teacher" are not equal. In my third attempt I acted wisely: I found a vacancy of a manager with knowledge of two languages in a foreign company. The salary is higher, the work is easier."

Along with translators there are also interpreters. They can be divided into consecutive and simultaneous interpreters. The difference between them consists only in the amount of time which is given for interpreting: simultaneous interpreters nearly don't have it. In most people's eyes their work looks very attractive: numerous foreign business trips, hourly wages, which can be hundreds, dollars per hour, meeting interesting people. Many stories recounting how interpreters had radically changed the result of the most significant military or diplomatic negotiations went down in history. To become an interpreter is a good way of fulfilling one's ambitions. But only few people know how difficult this work is. Simultaneous interpreter can work no more than 3-4 hours a day, and usually a seminar or a conference is served by not a single person, but by a whole team. Simultaneous interpreting requires so strong nervous tension that sooner or later practically every third interpreter experiences nervous breakdown, and by the age of 50 every second simultaneous interpreter gets nervous diseases (mostly, vegeto-vascular dystonia). But in spite of all difficulties and health hazard few people regret their career choice.

So, if you have decided to become a translator, you shouldn't give up your aim. This profession will always "give you this day your daily bread" under any conditions. But if you want to earn a lot and be wealthy, it would be better to apply your knowledge of foreign languages in some other profession (lawyer, economist, politician, or journalist).

 

Bibliography.

 

 1.Бархударов Л.С. О поверхностной и глубинной структуре предложения //Вопросы языкознания. – 1973. - №3 – с. 50-61

2. Бархударов Л.С. Язык и перевод. М.: Международные отношения, 1975 – 190с.

3. Бреус Е.В. Основы теории и практики перевода с русского языка на английский: Учебное пособие. 2-е изд., испр. и доп.-М.: Изд-во УРАО, 2000. – 208с.

4. Казакова Т.А. Практические основы перевода. English(Russia.-Серия: Изучаем иностранные языки. – СПб.: «Издательство Союз", - 2000, - 320с.
5. Комиссаров В.Н. Слово о переводе – М.: Международные отношения – 1973 – 215с.

6. Комиссаров В.Н. Лингвистика перевода – М.: Международные отношения – 1980 – 167с.

7. Латышев Л.К. Курс перевода: Эквивалентность перевода и способы ее достижения. – М.: Международные отношения, 1981 – 248с.

8. Латышев Л.К. Перевод: проблемы теории, практики и методики преподавания: Книга для учителя школ с углубленным изучением немецкого языка. – М.: Просвещение – 1988. – 159с.

9. Левицкая Т.Р., Фитерман А.М. Пособие по переводу с английского языка на русский. – М.: Высшая школа, 1973. – 136с.

10. Львовская Э.Д Теоретические проблемы перевода (на материале испанского языка). – М.: Высшая школа, 1985. – 232с.

11. Миньяр-Белоручев Р.К. Теория и методы перевода – М.: Московский лицей, 1996. – 208с.

12. Миньяр-Белоручев Р.К. Как стать переводчиком? /Ответственный редактор М.Я.Блох. - М.: "Готика", 1999. – 176с.

13. Мир перевода, или Вечный поиск взаимопонимания /А.Чужакин, П.Палажченко. – М.: Р.Валент, 1999.-192с.

14. Рецкер Я.И. Следует ли передавать аллитерацию в публицистическом переводе? "Тетради переводчика" №3, М., 1966, с.73

15. Рецкер Я.И. Теория перевода и переводческая практика. – М.: Международные отношения, - 1974. – 216с.

16. Рецкер Я.И., Что же такое лексические трансформации? "Тетради переводчика" №17, М.: Международные отношения, 1980, с.72-84

17. Сэлинджер Дж.Д. Сочинения. В 2-х т. Т.1. Рассказы (1940-1948); Над пропастью во ржи: Пер. с англ. /Прим. А.М. Зверева; Харьков: Фолио; Белгород: Фолио-Транзит, 1997. – 339с.

18. Федоров А.В. Основы общей теории перевода (лингвистические проблемы): Для ин-тов и фак. иностр. яз. Учебное пособие – М.: Высшая школа. 1983. – 303с.

19. Черняховская Л.А. Членение и объединение предложений при переводе с целью сохранения компонентов смысловой структуры // Иностранные языки в школе. – 1971 - №4 – с.21-30

20. Швейцер А.Д. Теория перевода. Статус, проблемы, аспекты – М.: Наука. 1988. – 215с.

21. Salinger J.D. The Catcher in the Rye: Книга для чтения на английском языке. – Киев.: Издательство "Знание" – 1999. – 276с.

22.Кимчук, К.В. Большой англо-русский и русско-английский словарь по бизнесу: Свыше 100 000 терминов, сочетаний, эквивалентов и значений. С транскрипцией / К.В. Кимчук. - М.: Живой язык, 2013. - 512 c.

23.Кравченко, Н.В. Англо-русский, русско-английский словарь бизнес-лексики: 30000 слов / Н.В. Кравченко. - Рн/Д: Феникс, 2012. - 383 c.

24.Мусихина, О.Н. Школьный англо-русский, русско-английский словарь / О.Н. Мусихина. - Рн/Д: Феникс, 2013. - 315 c.

25.Чепанова, Е.И. 2000 наиболее употребляемых немецких слов и выражений: Тематический словарь / Е.И. Чепанова. - М.: Айрис-пресс, 2013. - 96 c.

 

 

Glossary.

1. Ancient - древний

2. Afterwards – впоследствии

3. Abundant - обильное

4. Appeal - апелляция

5. Achieved - достигнуто

6. Copper - медь

7. Chipping away - отбивание

8. Craft - судов

9. Considerably - значительно

10. Deriving - происходящий

11. Deposits - депозиты

12. Extraction - добыча

13. Enshrouded - окутано

14. Excavate - выкопать

15. Equal - равно

16. Edge - край

17. Excavate – рыть

18. Furnace – печь 

19. Foundry – литейный

20. Guidance - руководство

21. Hammering - ковка

22. Incentive – стимул

23. Melted - плавится

24. Microhardness - микротвердость

25. Mould – плесень

26. Malleability - тягучесть

27. Peninsula - полуостров

28. Require - требует

29. Reveal - выявить

30. Reheated - разогреть

31. Recompense – возмещение

32. Solidified - затвердевает

33. Solemnity - торжественность

34. Spirits – духи

35. Spasmodically - скачкообразный

36. Sophistication - утонченность

37. Supplier - поставщик

38. Scarcer - все меньше

39. Solemnity – торжественность

40. Vast - обширный

41. Vessels – суды

42. Welding - сварка

Appendix.

My name is Chrystina.. I am a student of Business College. Today I am going to tell you about my native town. I live in Temirtau. The town is located at the Nura, northwest of Karaganda. Temirtau was founded in October, 1, 1945 on the basis of the former settlement of Samarkand. The settlement has got new name - Temirtau, that means “Iron Mountain”. The Kazakh Metallurgical Plant is here.

ArcelorMittal Temirtau (AMT) is a Kazakhstani vertically integrated steel and mining company that owns the Karaganda Metallurgical Plant (Temirtau, Karaganda oblast), the largest steelmaking enterprise in Kazakhstan. It is part of the transnational metallurgical group ArcelorMittal, which at the end of 2008 controlled about 10% of the global market for the industry. According to the data of the Expert RA Kazakhstan rating agency, ArcelorMittal Temirtau JSC ranks 8th in the list of the largest companies in Kazakhstan (as of 2015). It is divided into three departments: Steel, Coal and Iron

Temirtau is a large industrial center with developed infrastructure and high culture.

We have many places of interests in our town. They are two cinemas; a theater for children and youth; local history museum; City Palace of Culture; recreation park; House of Culture of the Deaf; and also The First President Historical and Cultural Center.

At first I will tell about the First President Historical and Cultural Center. The First President Historical and Cultural Center (the Center) was opened in Temirtau, November 22, 2011. The purpose of the Center is to rediscover through the lens of biography of the First President of the Republic of Kazakhstan Nursultan Nazarbayev themes of formation of independent Kazakhstan and huge heavy industry Kazakhstan Magnitka. As an object of art and culture, the Centre implements the State policy in the sphere of culture, museum management, create and display the Museum image of the history of the Republic of Kazakhstan. As well as participates in realization of the State policy in the field of education and science by providing traditional library services and prioritizing the introduction of information and communication technologies. The Centre organizes the theatrical stage, concert activities, aimed at the development of spirituality, national identity, patriotism, moral qualities, as well as the promotion of national and world achievements in culture and art. The center consists of 6 exhibition halls. There is: Independent Kazakhstan, The Son of His Time, The Personality Phenomenon, The Steel Profile of Kazakhstan, In the Stream of Time, Kazakhstan’s way. The Museum regularly hosts various exhibitions – art, craft, some of them are devoted to scientific activities.

You can see a variety of statues from cartoons near the Center. Also it is a Monument to metallurgists. The monument to metallurgists was opened by the decade of Independence of the Republic of Kazakhstan and was dedicated to the heroic work of metallurgists.

  Now I'm standing near the city Palace of culture. The city Palace of culture is the center of cultural life of Temirtau. The Palace of culture was opened in November 1972. One of the most famous is the vocal and choreographic ensemble "Inspiration", the choreographic ensemble "Arabesques", as well as the choreographic ensemble "Gloria". Different events are held in the Palace of culture of the city: concerts, exhibitions, fairs.

Now you can see the theater for children and youth. The theater building is an architectural monument and located in the old part of Temirtau. The purpose of the opening of the theater was to preserve the theatrical culture of Temirtau; the creation of a theater is fully focused on the young spectator in the Karaganda region.

There are cultural monuments on the territory of the town of Temirtau that give a special look to the city, this building of the Theater for Children and Youth; building of the Palace of Culture; Monument to the Temirtaus warriors who died during the Great Patriotic War.

Of course, Temirtau is not an ideal place to live. Most people who come to our town for the first time say that it is grey, dirty and miserable. In fact, I know all the problems of my town very well. But, as the proverb says, East or West, home is best.

 

ОТЧЕТ

 

об учебной практике

по специальности 0512000-Переводческое дело (по видам)

Место прохождения практики: ЧУ «ШИК»

 

Период прохождения практики с 19.01.20

 

Руководитель практики                                                 Катаева Ж.М.

 

 

Выполнила: студентка гр. КГП-18                           Муравьёва Т.С.

 

 

Караганда 2020

 

Contents

 

Introduction	3
Chapter 1.Stylistic analysis of the text.	5
Chapter 2. General theoretical questions of translation.	8
Chapter 3. Lexical transformations.	10
Chapter 4. Grammatical transformations.	15
Chapter 5. Examples of transformations by texts	21
Conclusions	51
Bibliography	54
Glossary	56
Appendix	57

 

Introduction.

Among the urgent problems of modern translation, the development of such a field as the translation of scientific and technical texts takes an important place, in connection with the accelerating scientific and technical process this type of translation is becoming more and more in demand. The translation of a foreign language text is always associated with many difficulties that arise in the way of an interpreter. When translating, all the subtleties of a foreign language must be taken into account. The task of an interpreter is to feel the style of the article, to convey all the subtleties of the translated material without distorting the original source. One of the most complicated types of translation is a scientific and technical translation, since for an adequate interpretation of a material in another language; not only linguistic but technical knowledge is required as well. Technical translation is the translation of texts of technical subjects, in particular, documents of different specialization, all kinds of reference literature, dictionaries, product conformity certificates, operating instructions, engineering plans, scientific and technical articles, business contracts and other commercial technical proposals. Authors of scientific works avoid the usage of many expressive means of language, in order not to violate the basic principle of the scientific and technical language — the accuracy and clarity of the presentation. From the point of view of the vocabulary, the main feature of technical translation is the maximum saturation of the special terminology that is characteristic of a given branch of knowledge.

Аn obligatory condition of an adequate translation of a scientific text is the ability to analyze the grammatical structure of foreign sentences to ascertain translation difficulties and construct sentences while translating according to the norms of a language and the genre of translation.

Thus, the general competence of a teacher envisages a good knowledge of the grammatical specific characteristics of the languages from which and into which the translation is done, the principles of the theory of translation in general and the translation of a medical scientific text, in particular, as well as translation adequacies in the field of grammar and vocabulary, translation transformations, ways of rendering various linguistic and speech phenomena.

Of special importance for a translator of a scientific text is the knowledge of the subject of translation, i.e. the ability of orientation oneself in that subject branch to which a text intended for translation belongs, in our case – different sublanguages of medicine, for example, such as Therapy, Surgery, Traumatology, Ophthalmology, Cardiology etc.

While translating a comprehension of the content of the sentences and semantic relations between sentences, as well as the meanings of metatexual elements, participating in the organization of a text, are necessary. The largest complex of grammatical problems of translation is naturally connected with understanding the syntactical structure and the morphological composition of sentences as linguistic elements and direct carriers of subject information.

The fact that the English and Ukrainian languages belong to different branches of the Indo-European family of languages and to different structural types specifies divergences in their structure, sets of their grammatical categories, forms and constructions that make up a large group of grammar difficulties of translation.

Another category of difficulties is stipulated by different volume of the content of similar forms and construction. For example, the form of the present form of the verb-predicate in the Ukrainian language corresponds by its content to the English corresponding forms of the Present Indefinite, Present Continuous and partially to the Present Perfect; the form of the Genitive Case of an Ukrainian noun may correspond by its grammatical meaning to the English preposition  noun construction (of + n) or the form of the Common Case of the noun in a preposition to another noun.

Grammatical difficulties of translating are inherent to those grammatical phenomena of the language of the text of the original that have different functional characteristics from the corresponding grammatical phenomena of the language of the translation, e.g. the singular and plural forms of the noun, available both in Ukrainian and English, however the forms of individual nouns may not coincided (English knowledge is used only in the singular form, but may be translated by both the singular and plural form).

Certain difficulties of translation of grammatical phenomena arise in case of diverse frequency of their use in different languages. Thus, for example, the frequence of the forms of the Passive Voice of the verb-predicate is considerably higher than in the Ukrainian language, and, thus, while translating such forms, one has to change them into the forms of the Active Voice. Such difficulties are caused by the divergencies in linguostylistic standards of text of the language of the original and that of the translation.

In the process of translating translators come across with grammatical homonyms (that, one), the peculiarities of expressing the parts of the sentence in both languages (first of all the subject and predicate), the absence of certain grammatical phenomena in one of the language (e.g. the absence in the Ukrainian language of such a verbal form as the Gerund), of forms or constructions (e.g. the absence in the Ukrainian language of the forms of the verb in Perfect and Perfect Continuous), of complex infinitive and participle constructions, such as Complex Object, Complex Subject, Absolute Participle Construction), the peculiar characteristics of the combinative ability and functioning of word in word combinations and sentences etc.

In order to avoid an inadequate, word-for-word translation (grammatical “over-literal rendering”) it is necessary to apply translating grammatical transformations. As a result a literal translation is adapted to the standards of the language of translation and becomes adequate. Under grammar transformation one envisages a change of the grammatical characteristics of a word, word combination or a sentence in a translation. They differentiate a few grammatical transformations: a transposition or permutation, a replacement or substitution, addition, exclusion, complex transformation, generalization, integral transformation etc.

Chapter 1.Stylistic analysis of the text.

Stylistics is not equal to linguistics science, such as lexicology, morphology, syntax and phonetics, because they are level disciplines as they treat only one linguistic level, and stylistics investigates the questions on all the levels and different aspects of the texts in general. The French linguist E. Benveniste used the word ‘level’ to characterize the hierarchical structure of language.

Stylistics can be defined as a branch of modern linguistics devoted to the detailed analysis of literary style, or of the linguistic choices made by speakers and writers in non-literary contexts.

According to the Russian linguist I.R. Galperin, stylistics is a branch of general linguistics, which deals with the investigation of two independent tasks:

1. Stylistics studies the special media of language which are called stylistic devices and expressive means.

2. Stylistics studies the types of texts which are distinguished by the pragmatic aspect of the communication and are called functional styles of language.

Stylistics must be subdivided into separate, independent branches – stylistic morphology, stylistic lexicology, stylistic syntax, stylistic phonetics. Whatever level we take, stylistics describes not what is in common use, but what is specific use, in this or that respect, what differentiates one sublanguage from others.

General (non-stylistic) morphology treats morphemes and grammatical meanings expressed by them in language in general, without regard to their stylistic value. Stylistic morphology is interested in grammatical forms and grammatical meanings that are peculiar to particular sublanguages, explicity or implicity comparing them with the neutral ones common to all the sublanguages.

Lexicology deals with stylistic classification (differentiation) of the vocabulary that form a part of stylistics. In stylistic lexicology each unit is studied separately, instead of as a whole text (group of words, word classification).General syntax treats word combinations and sentences, analyzing their structures and stating what is permissible and what is inadmissible in constructing correct utterances in the given language. Stylistic syntax shows what particular constructions are met with in various types of speech, what syntactical structures are style forming (specific) in the sublanguages in question.

As it was already mentioned, general (non-stylistic) phonetics investigates the whole articulatory – audial system of language. Stylistic phonetics describes variants of pronunciation occuring in different types of speech; special attention is also paid to prosodic features of prose and poetry. Unfortunately, there is no adequate definition of stylistic phonetics, although many well-known linguists, who devoted their works to the study of stylistics, among them I.R. Galperin, V.M. Zhirmunsky, L. Bloomfield, Yu. Skrebnev, I. Arnold always paid special attention to it, underlining its meaning for the style-forming phonetic features. The works of the mentioned above linguists will be also used for the analysis in this work.

As here the subjects of stylistic phonetics are going to be investigated, it should be necessary to mention phonetic expressive means and stylistic devices.

Loanwords are words adopted by the speakers of one language from a different language (the source language). A loanword can also be called a borrowing. The abstract noun borrowing refers to the process of speakers adopting words from a source language into their native language. "Loan" and "borrowing" are of course metaphors, because there is no literal lending process. There is no transfer from one language to another, and no "returning" words to the source language. They simply come to be used by a speech community that speaks a different language from the one they originated in.

Borrowing is a consequence of cultural contact between two language communities. Borrowing of words can go in both directions between the two languages in contact, but often there is an asymmetry, such that more words go from one side to the other. In this case the source language community has some advantage of power, prestige and/or wealth that makes the objects and ideas it brings desirable and useful to the borrowing language community. For example, the Germanic tribes in the first few centuries A.D. adopted numerous loanwords from Latin as they adopted new products via trade with the Romans. Few Germanic words, on the other hand, passed into Latin.

The actual process of borrowing is complex and involves many usage events (i.e. instances of use of the new word). Generally, some speakers of the borrowing language know the source language too, or at least enough of it to utilize the relevant words. They adopt them when speaking the borrowing language. If they are bilingual in the source language, which is often the case, they might pronounce the words the same or similar to the way they are pronounced in the source language. For example, English speakers adopted the word garage from French, at first with a pronunciation nearer to the French pronunciation than is now usually found. Presumably the very first speakers who used the word in English knew at least some French and heard the word used by French speakers.

Those who first use the new word might use it at first only with speakers of the source language who know the word, but at some point they come to use the word with those to whom the word was not previously known. To these speakers the word may sound 'foreign'. At this stage, when most speakers do not know the word and if they hear it think it is from another language, the word can be called a foreign word. There are many foreign words and phrases used in English such as bon vivant (French), mutatis mutandis (Latin), and Schadenfreude (German).

However, in time more speakers can become familiar with a new foreign word. The community of users can grow to the point where even people who know little or nothing of the source language understand, and even use the novel word themselves. The new word becomes conventionalized. At this point we call it a borrowing or loanword. (Not all foreign words do become loanwords; if they fall out of use before they become widespread, they do not reach the loanword stage.)

Conventionalization is a gradual process in which a word progressively permeates a larger and larger speech community. As part of its becoming more familiar to more people, with conventionalization a newly borrowed word gradually adopts sound and other characteristics of the borrowing language. In time, people in the borrowing community do not perceive the word as a loanword at all. Generally, the longer a borrowed word has been in the language, and the more frequently it is used, the more it resembles the native words of the language.

English has gone through many periods in which large numbers of words from a particular language were borrowed. These periods coincide with times of major cultural contact between English speakers and those speaking other languages. The waves of borrowing during periods of especially strong cultural contacts are not sharply delimited, and can overlap. For example, the Norse influence on English began already in the 8th century A.D. and continued strongly well after the Norman Conquest brought a large influx of Norman French to the language.

It is part of the cultural history of English speakers that they have always adopted loanwords from the languages of whatever cultures they have come in contact with. There have been few periods when borrowing became unfashionable, and there has never been a national academy in Britain, the U.S., or other English-speaking countries to attempt to restrict new loanwords, as there has been in many continental European countries.

The following list is a small sampling of the loanwords that came into English in different periods and from different languages.

Borrowing words from other languages is characteristic of English throughout its history More than two thirds of the English vocabulary are borrowings. Mostly they are words of Romanic origin (Latin, French, Italian, Spanish). Borrowed words are different from native ones by their phonetic structure, by their morphological structure and also by their grammatical forms. It is also characterisitic of borrowings to be non-motivated semantically.

English history is very rich in different types of contacts with other countries, that is why it is very rich in borrowings. The Roman invasion, the adoption of Cristianity, Scandinavian and Norman conquests of the British Isles, the development of British colonialism and trade and cultural relations served to increase immensely the English vocabulary. The majority of these borrowings are fully assimilated in English in their pronunciation, grammar, spelling and can be hardly distinguished from native words.

English continues to take in foreign words, but now the quantity of borrowings is not so abundant as it was before. All the more so, English now has become a «giving» language, it has become Lingva franca of the twentieth century.

Causes of borrowing concerns the historical circumstances which stimulate the borrowing process. Each time two nations come into close contact, certain borrowings are a natural consequence. The nature of the contact may be different. It may be wars, invasions or conquests when foreign words are in effect imposed upon the reluctant conquered nation. There are also periods of peace when the process of borrowing is due to trade and international cultural relations.