Forestry as the art, science and managing forests

Chapter II Forestry

 

 

Lesson   1

Forestry as the art, science and managing forests

 

Terms and expressions

forested land	– лесистая местность
waste land	– пустыня, пустошь
supply of timber	– поставка лесоматериалов
forest manager	– лесничий
felling of timber	– валка леса
reforestation	– восстановление лесных массивов
afforestation	– лесонасаждение, облесение
silviculture	– лесоводство
forest regeneration	– лесовозобновление
tree nursery	– лесной питомник
grow seedlings	– выращивать сеянцы
leaseholder	– арендатор, наниматель
weed control	– борьба с сорняками
insect infestation	– повреждение древесины насекомыми
wildlife conservation	– охрана дикой природы
forest resources	– лесные ресурсы
logging company	– лесозаготовительная компания
selection of species	– селекция видов
tree breeding	– селекция древесных пород
processing of timber	– обработка лесоматериалов
sustainable forestry	– неистощительное лесопользование
forested terrain	– лесистая местность
soil erosion	– эрозия почвы
landsliding	– образование оползней и обвалов
watershed protection	– защита
wildlife habitat	– среда обитания диких животных
wood products	– лесоматериалы
enhance forests	– укреплять леса
forest management	– лесопользование
forestation	– лесоразведение
forest organization	– лесоустройство
harvest	– заготавливать древесину

Introductory exercises

1. Переведите следующие предложения на русский язык:

1. Forestry is management of forested land, together with associated waters and wasteland, primarily for harvesting timber but also for conservation and recreation purposes.

2. The science of forestry is built around the principle of multiple use land management, though the harvesting and replanting of timber are the primary activities.

3. The main objective is to maintain а continuous supply of timber through carefully planned harvest and replacement.

4. The forest manager is also responsible for the application of other land controls, including the protection of wildlife and the implementation of programs to protect the forest from weeds, insects, fungal diseases, erosion, and fire.

5. The planned management of forest originated in early medieval Europe, where laws regulated the felling of timber and the use of forest for hunting.

6. In the 19 ^th century private forestry  schools were  established in Europe

and in 1891 the U.S. government authorized its first reserves of forested land.

7. During the 20 ^th  century many nations have undertaken reforestation or afforestation programs.

2. Найдите в тексте и переведите словосочетания:

Related natural resources; tending of trees and forests; to provide timber; raw material; wood products; wildlife habitat; community protection; applied art; conservation groups; urban parks boards; private landowners; timber harvest; forest regeneration; tree nursery; to grow seedlings; forest management plan; tree inventories; a timber company; cutting rights; state–owned forests; forest tract; forest harvest laws; tree planting; weed control; spacing of young trees; insect infestation; forest mensuration; wildlife conservation; watershed protection; to gather firewood; to graze animals; hunting rights; a sustainable yield of timber; logging companies; selection of species; tree breeding; controlled burning; processing of timber; sound forest stewardship; sustainable forestry; soil erosion; mismanagement of the forest; preservation of wilderness; motorized recreation; mature trees; an acceptably trained forester; to facilitate the way; to ensure forest ecosystems to benefit society; to enhance and protect forests.

3. Переведите текст (рекомендуется для зрительно - устного и зрительно-письменного перевода):

Forestry

Forestry is the art, science, and practice of studying and managing forests and plantations, and related natural resources. Silviculture, а related science, involves the growing and tending of trees and forests. Modern forestry generally concerns itself with assisting forests to provide timber as raw material for wood products; wildlife habitat; natural water quality regulation; recreation; landscape and community protection; employment; aesthetically appealing landscapes; and а 'sink' for atmospheric carbon dioxide. А practitioner of forestry is known as а forester.

Forests have come to be seen as one of the most important components of

the biosphere, and forestry has emerged as а vital field of science, applied art,

and technology. Foresters may be employed by industry, government agencies, conservation groups, urban parks boards, citizens' associations, or private landowners. Industrial foresters are predominantly involved in planning the timber harvests and forest regeneration. Other foresters have the specific jobs which include а broad array of responsibilities. For example, urban foresters work within city environments to enhance urban trees with their unique needs. Some foresters work in tree nurseries growing seedlings for regeneration projects. Others are involved with tree genetics or developing new building systems as forest engineers. The profession has expanded to include а wide diversity of jobs, typically requiring а college bachelor's degree up to the PhD level for highly specialized areas of work.

Traditionally, professional foresters develop and implement "forest management plans". These plans rely on tree inventories showing an area's topographical features as well as its distribution of trees (by species) and other plant cover. They also include roads, culverts, proximity to human habitation, hydrological conditions, and soil reports ecological sensitive areas. Finally, forest management plans include the projected use of the land and а timetable for that use.

Plans for harvest and subsequent site treatment are influenced by the objectives of the land's owner or leaseholder (for instance, а timber company that holds cutting rights to а given tract of land, or the government in the case of state-owned forests). There is an increasing trend to consider the needs of other stakeholders (e.g., nearby communities or neighborhoods, or rural residents living within or adjacent to the forest tract). Plans are developed with the prevailing forest harvest laws and regulations in mind. They ultimately result in а prescription for the harvest of trees, and indicate whether road building or other forest engineering operations are required.

Traditional forest management plans are chiefly aimed at providing logs

as raw material for timber, veneer, plywood, paper, or other industries. Hence, considerations of product quality and quantity, employment, and profit have been of central, though not always exclusive, importance.

Foresters also frequently develop post-harvest site plans. These may can for reforestation (tree planting by species), weed control, fertilization, or the spacing of young trees (thinning of trees that are crowding one another).

Other duties of foresters include preventing and combating insect infestation, disease, forest and grassland fires. Foresters are specialists in measuring and modeling the growth of forests (for mensuration). Increasingly, foresters may be involved in wildlife conservation planning and watershed protection.

History

The use and management of forest resources has а long history in China, dating from the Han Dynasty and taking place under the landowning gentry. In the Western world, formal forestry practices developed during the Middle Ages, when land was largely under the control of kings and barons. Control of the land included hunting rights, and though peasants in many places were permitted to gather firewood and building timber and to graze animals, hunting rights were retained by the members of the nobility. Systematic management of forests for а sustainable yield of timber is said to have begun in about 1500 in Japan [1], and in the German states in the 16th century. Typically, а forest was divided into specific sections and mapped; the harvest of timber was planned with an eye to regeneration.

The enactment and evolution of forestry laws and binding regulations occurred in most Western nations in the 20th century in response to growing conservation concerns and the increasing technological capacity of logging companies.Tropical forestry is а separate branch of forestry which deals mainly with equatorial forests that yield woods such as teak and mahogany. Sir Dietrich

Brandis is considered the father of tropical forestry.

Forestry today

Today а strong body of research exists regarding the managing of forest ecosystems, selection of species and varieties, and tree breeding. Forestry also includes the development of better methods for the planting, protecting, thinning, controlled burning, felling, extracting: and processing of timber. One of the applications of modern forestry is reforestation, in which trees are planted and tended in а given area.

In many regions the forest industry is of major ecological, economic, and social importance. Third-party certification systems that provide independent verification of sound forest stewardship and sustainable forestry have become commonplace in many areas since the 1990s. These certification systems were developed in а response to criticism of forestry practices. Some certifications systems are criticised for primarily acting as marketing tools and lacking in their claimed independence.

In topographically severe forested terrain, proper forestry is important for the prevention or minimization of serious soil erosion or even landsliding. In areas with а high potential for landsliding, good forestry can act to prevent property damage or loss, human injury, or loss of life.

Forest management has become increasingly controversial, with growing public perception concerning, mismanagement of the forest and increasing demands that forest land be managed for other use such as recreation, watershed protection and preservation of wilderness and wildlife habitat. Sharp disagreements over the rule of forest fires, logging, motorized recreation and others drives debate while the public demand for wood products continues to increase.

Forestry education

The first dedicated forestry school was established by Georg Hartig at

Dillenburg in Germany in 1787, though forestry had been taught much earlier in central Europe. The first in North America was established near Asheville, North Carolina, by George Vanderbilt after he saw the devastation logging had caused in the area. The grounds of his Biltmore Estate are almost entirely managed forest, which has grown from bare ground to mature trees since 1895. Early North American foresters went to Germany from the nineteenth century to study forestry. Some early Germany foresters also emigrated to North America.

Today, an acceptably trained forester must be educated in general biology, botany, genetics, soil science, climatology, hydrology, economics and forest management. Education in the basics of sociology and political science is often considered an advantage.

An interesting scope of work opens up for foresters interested in international politics. Organizations such as the Forest Policy Education Network (FPEN) are dedicated to facilitate the way into forest politics and to exchange information on the subject.

Forestry organizations

The International Forestry Students' Association is an association of forestry students worldwide. Their primary goal is to enrich forestry students formal education, especially in terms of а wider, more global perspective through extracurricular activities and the exchange of information and experience.

The Society of American Foresters (SAF) is the national scientific and educational organization representing the forestry profession in the United States. Founded in 1900 by Gifford Pinchot, the SAF mission is to advance the science and practice of forestry, enhance the competency of its members and use the knowledge of the profession to help ensure forest ecosystems and resources to benefit society.

The Institute of Chartered Foresters is the professional body for foresters in

the United Kingdom. The qualifications that it awards are recognized throughout

the European Union.

The Commonwealth Forestry Association (CFA) is an international forestry organization established in 1921, which supports the professional development of those working with trees and forests.

The National Association of Professional Forestry Schools and Colleges (NAPFSC) was founded in 1981 and is composed of 67 organizations and represents university faculty, scientists and forestry specialists working to enhance and protect our forests.

4. Переведите вопросы и ответьте на них:

1. What is forestry?

2. What does silviculture deal with?

3. What are the functions of modern forestry?

4. How may foresters be employed?

5. Could you define duties of foresters?

6. What are applications of modern forestry today?

7. What can forest land be managed for?

8. When was the first forestry school established?

9. How must an acceptably trained forester be educated?

10. Could you name forestry organizations?

5. Переведите на слух:

Silviculture; поставлять лесоматериалы; wood products; среда обитания диких животных; natural water quality regulation; группы по защите окружающей среды; work in tree nurseries; выращивать саженцы; implement “forest management plans”; леса, принадлежащие государству; the harvest of trees; сырье для лесной промышленности; post-harvest site plans; борьбы с сорняками; the spacing of young trees; предупреждение лесных пожаров; modeling the growth of forest; защита водных ресурсов; to gather firewood and building timber; вырубка леса; processing of timber.

6. Переведите устно (рекомендуется для зрительно-устного перевода с подготовкой):

Russian forests

Urban forestry

Urban forestry is the care and management of tree populations in urban settings for the purpose of improving the urban environment. Urban forestry advocates the role of trees as а critical part of the urban infrastructure. Urban foresters plant and maintain trees, support appropriate tree and forest preservation, conduct research and promote the many benefits trees provide. Urban forestry is practiced by municipal and commercial arborists, municipal and utility foresters, environmental policymakers city planners, consultants, educators, researchers and community activists.

Benefits of urban forestry

However, the benefits of urban trees are many, including beautification,

reduction of the urban heat island effect, reduction of stormwater runoff, reduction of air pollution, reduction of energy costs though increased shade over buildings, enhancement of property values, improved wildlife habitat, and mitigation of overall urban environmental impact.

Aesthetic Benefits

Trees introduce colors, textures; and contrasts that soften the angular outlines and geometry of the urban landscape. Trees can frame desirable views, or block the unsightly ones. Flowers, color, bark, outlines, trunks, branch structure, provoke interest. Well-planned plantings complement architecture in defining the size and nature of outdoor spaces.

Economic benefits

The economic benefits of trees have been understood for а long time. Recently, more of these benefits are becoming quantified. Quantification of the economic benefits of trees helps justify public and private expenditures to maintain them. One of the most obvious examples of economic utility is the deciduous tree planted on the south and west of а building. The shade shelters and cools the building during the summer, but allows the sun to warm it in the winter after the leaves fall. The USDA 'Guide" notes on page 17 that" Businesses flourish, people linger and shop longer, apartments and office space rent quicker, tenants stay longer, property values increase, new business and industry is

attracted" by trees. The physical effects of trees - the shade (solar regulation),

humidity control, wind control, erosion control, evaporative cooling, sound and visual screening, traffic control, pollution absorption and precipitation - all have economic benefits.

Terms and expression

conservation	– охрана окружающей среды
depletion of populations	– уменьшение популяций
use of pesticides	– использование пестицидов
usability of resources	– использование ресурсов
fuel materials	– топливо, горючие материалы
uncultivated land	– некультивированная земля
provide a safe haven	– обеспечить безопасное убежище
harvesting of timber	– лесозаготовка
indigenous wildlife	– первозданная, дикая природа
conservationists	– сторонники защиты окружающей среды
logging activities	– лесозаготовительная деятельность
woodland caribou	– канадский олень, карибу
chipmunks	– бурундуки
white – tailed deer	– белый олень
moose habitat	– среда обитания американского лося
habitat diversity	– разнообразие сред обитания
timber cutting	– рубка леса
successional stands	– постоянный древостой
access roads	– доступные дороги
clear cuts	– леса, вырубаемые сплошной рубкой
tree and ground lichens	– лишайники (наземный, на деревьях)
snags	– сухостойный лес
girdled trees	– кольцевание деревьев
salvage logging	– заготовка низкокачественных или поврежденных деревьев
plantations	– лесные насаждения
wildlife viewing	– наблюдение за дикой природой
game	– дичь
fish spawning	– нерест рыбы
selective logging	– лесозаготовки выборочными рубками
nutrient cycling	– цикл питания
control pest epidemics	– борьба с вредными насекомыми

Introductory exercises

1. Переведите следующие предложения на русский язык:

1. Wildlife conservation is regulation of wild animals and plants in such a way as to provide for their continuance.

2. Efforts are aimed at preventing the depletion of present population and ensuring the continued existence of the habitats targeted species need to survive.

3. Techniques involve establishment of sanctuaries and controls on hunting, use of land, importation of exotic species, pollution, and use of pesticides.

4. Conservation is planned management of a natural resource or of a particular ecosystem to prevent exploitation, pollution, destruction, or neglect and to ensure the future usability of the resource.

5. In the west, conservation efforts date to the 17th century efforts to protect European forests in the face of increasing demands for fuel and building materials.

6. National parks, first established in the 19th century, were dedicated to the preservation of uncultivated land not only to provide a safe haven to wildlife but to protect watershed areas and help ensure a clean water supply.

7. National legislation and international treaties and regulations aim to strike a balance between the need for development and the need to conserve the environment for the future.

2. Найдите в тексте и переведите словосочетания:

Far–reaching impact; sensible policies and practices; the indigenous wildlife; wildlife conservationists; forestry practitioners; wise resource management; to enhance wildlife populations; natural disturbances; fires and windstorms; mature boreal or mixed wood forests; wildlife species; forestry and wildlife integration; clearcut size; habitat diversity; snag habitat management; fish habitat protection; pesticide and herbicide use; to benefit from logging operations; to create access roads for hunting and viewing opportunities; wintering areas; aquatic feeding areas; a diverse, healthy landscape; large small clearcuts; movement of animals; yarding areas; siltation of streams; destruction of spawning beds; to favour strip cuts; to contain shelter patches; predation mortality; old growth forests; to ensure adequate habitat; to protect mature stands; to mimic fires; a burned area; to provide nesting sites; destructive forest insects; to cut down snags; clear cutting operations; to provide cavity – nesting habitat; to replace trees though girding.

3. Переведите текст (рекомендуется для зрительно-письменного, зрительно-устного, устного перевода на слух и письменного перевода на слух):

Moose management

The Ontario Ministry of Natural Resources has stated that "Timber cutting is one of the major producers of moose habitat in the province of Ontario and without this disturbance, moose populations would be lower." You might get several applications to join the C.P.P.A. if more sportsmen were aware of this fact. Forestry now creates the young successional stands which at one time followed widespread forest fires. Moose browse on twigs and buds of willow, birch and aspen that occur in these young stands, and now benefit from logging operations. Forestry also benefits the public by creating access roads for hunting and viewing opportunities. However, moose also require mature stands of conifers as wintering areas and they depend on productive aquatic feeding areas in lakes and streams in spring and early summer. They depend on a diverse, healthy landscape where all of these features are in close proximity.

Large block clearcuts are not good for moose and the majority of other forest wildlife. Open, overgrown expanses do not promote movement of animals like moose and deer to the feeding or yarding areas. These sites are much more prone to erosion than smaller clearcuts, and may contribute to siltation of streams and destruction of spawning beds. From a game conservation perspective, animals like moose are very exposed to both elements and to hunting. When the ratio of uncut to cut areas shifts towards the latter, most wildlife populations do not benefit. There are some that do benefit, of course. Least chipmunks, meadow voles, and sparrows and other species flourish in clearcuts. The Federation realizes that clear-cutting is the cutting practice for many northern forests, so we developed suggestions to help keep the practice as undamaging to wildlife as possible.

We propose that wherever feasible, small clearcuts or strip cuts should be favored. If large tracts are to be cut, design them in rectangular blocks that maximize edge and minimize distance to cover for animals foraging in the cuts. There is a rule of thumb stating that in general, moose will not travel more than 200m into cutovers. If cuts are not larger than 400m wide, therefore, moose will likely use the entire area, while benefitting from adjacent cover. We agree with the Ontario Ministry of Natural Resources guideline that clearcuts greater than 100ha should contain shelter patches within the cutover area. These could be of mixed wood, around three to five hectares. We consider clearcuts larger than 120 ha to be unacceptable.

Woodland caribou

Woodland caribou have disappeared from large areas of the boreal forest. Logging has contributed to this loss, along with fires, hunting and predation mortality, and disease. Although we don't know exactly what caribou need to survive, we do know that in winter, they depend on tree and ground lichens that are typical of old growth forests. In areas where woodland caribou occur, care should be taken to ensure adequate habitat is available for this wide-ranging species. To a certain extent, forest lands reserved from cutting, such as rocky areas with little soil, can contribute to caribou habitat conservation. Otherwise, some old growth or mature stands should be protected. The C.P.P.A. and other forestry groups have produced publications on wildlife, demonstrating an interest in the subject. We believe that if woodland caribou can be accommodated in areas of managed forests, true forestry/wildlife integration would be achieved.

Snag protection

Disturbance caused by forestry creates new habitat, and in this way mimics some fires. However, one aspect is certainly different. Following a fire, large numbers of dead trees (snags, chicots) are left standing in the burned area. As the forest regrows, the snags provide prime nesting sites for woodpeckers. These and other cavity-nest species are voracious insect eaters. The diet of these and other insectivorous birds can be more than 80 per cent destructive forest insects. One study from the State of Washington showed that predation of birds on western spruce budworm was the equivalent of $1,820 per square mile per year of insecticides over a 100-year rotation. There are similar figures available for Canadian forests. The point is that bird predation helps foresters and can be enhanced by enlightened forestry practice.

It is common practice to cut down snags during clearcutting operations, often for safety reasons. And if reseeding or replanting follows a burn, site preparation eliminates most snags or potential snags from a site. The benefits of snags to many wildlife species is well-documented, and I direct interested persons to the U.S.D.A. Forest Service Handbook on Wildlife Habitats in Managed Forests for examples. With a minimal amount of effort, we believe this component of wildlife habitat can be protected. We recommend that during site preparation, patches of dead standing timber be left intact to provide cavity-nesting habitat. And secondly, we propose that should the felling of all snags during logging continue, foresters should consider replacing some of these trees, perhaps through girdling. Girdled trees remain standing as the new stand grows toward maturity.

Once cavities exist, other species such as flying squirrels and flycatchers move in as well. An entire wildlife community depends on snags, and this community is affected when snags disappear. As well, the small stands of live trees we recommend leaving in clearcuts will provide nesting habitat for other insect-eating birds like warblers, whose activities can only benefit foresters.

If salvage logging is to be undertaken, the U.S.D.A. Forest Service recommends leaving broken-topped, twisted and heavily-limbed snags for wildlife, while harvesting more valuable ones, and leaving snags in areas that are difficult to cut. A third approach would be to leave soft snags, that is, those that are too decayed to be merchantable, wherever possible.

Intensive forestry in Europe has reached a point where they have to add nest boxes to entice insectivorous birds to their plantations. In Canada we have yet to reach that point. The protection of snags should be able to provide this benefit to foresters and to wildlife populations.

Planning plantations

One common misconception among the general public is that plantations that replace natural regeneration are sterile environments devoid of wildlife. This is not so, and in fact the effect can be just the opposite. Dr. Jim Bendall of the Faculty of Forestry at the University of Toronto has been examining the effects of plantation habitats on wildlife, and has some interesting results. He has studied primarily jack pine and spruce forests around Gogama, Ontario. Population increases reaching epidemic levels have been observed in heather voles, spruce grouse, varying hare and even some song bird species. Why these "outbreaks" occur is not clear, but it could be due to the homogenous nature of the habitat and thus the local concentration of resources associated with that age class and forest type.

Species able to exploit concentrated resources such as certain shrub and understory plant species, and even the trees themselves, can do extremely well. Bendall's group has reported the highest densities of heather voles ever recorded, and noted the highest spruce grouse densities in North America. They point out that few studies exist on the fauna of plantations, and that in general we know very little about how forestry affects wildlife.

So it is evident that some wildlife species benefit from even-aged, structurally similar plantations. However, so do some of our most destructive forest pests. To alleviate the potential for pest outbreaks and achieve a healthy balance of habitat for all wildlife species, we recommend the planning of cutting and plantations to create a mixture of age classes over the landscape. Rather than large blocks of relatively homogenous habitat, a mosaic of stand ages would be preferred, including a small portion of old-growth habitat.

Larry Harris, in his award-winning book The Fragmented Forest, suggested: "a system of long rotation islands of intact old growth, contiguous with a shifting mosaic of old and new forest stands.” The configuration and cutting plans associated with this system are best left with foresters, but preferably old growth and other reserves should protect natural features such as waterways, moose wintering yards and the sensitive features.

The O.F.A.H. has developed a policy on access roads. Basically, we are in favor of access to public land and public resources for all people. We feel that the blocking of access roads or limiting their use to a single user group is not a wide management strategy. In many cases, public funds helped pay for road construction, and we feel the public should be allowed to use them.

We realize that there are problems associated with increased access, and do not take lightly the risks of increased fire, poaching, or vandalism of forestry equipment. We feel such problems are associated with a minority of users and with proper precautions, including increased policing, these negative effects can be minimized. Closing off roads because of the deleterious effects of a few people is like prohibiting logging in some areas because of the deleterious practices of a few companies. Access provides valuable hunting, wildlife viewing and other recreational opportunities.

Hunting pressure, we know, can be concentrated around roads and can preferentially affect local game populations. Therefore, in some cases it may be necessary to post "NO DISCHARGE OF FIREARMS" signs similar to those used around cutting sites, for the protection of game that becomes attracted to and exposed in larger clearcuts.

Access roads can provide habitat management opportunities. Specifically, we recommend spreading clover seed to help the re-vegetation of roadsides, landings or other disturbed clearings. These, we feel, will benefit populations of game species such as moose, deer and grouse.

Minimizing effects on fish

The traditional shoreline reserves associated with streams and lakes have, until recently, protected important fish spawning and feeding habitat, by reducing siltation and maintaining cover that keeps some water-bodies cool. New approaches, at least in Ontario, are providing foresters the option of cutting right down to shoreline, as long as sensitive areas such as aquatic feeding sites and spawning areas are protected. We are in favor of strategies that maximize fibre production while minimizing effects on fish and wildlife, but we do believe that caution should be taken in this interface between land and water. It is a very diverse and productive habitat. If cutting of trees occurs down to lakeshores, we feel that shoreline cover should be maintained to decrease; the effects of erosion. This can be accomplished through selective logging. Although warm water lakes may not suffer from increased sedimentation and the reduction of shade from shoreline trees, only minimal disturbance should be allowed in this sensitive zone.

We are also in favor of maintaining vegetation and the reduction of

mechanical disturbance along feeder streams and small waterways in cutting areas. These may not harbour game fish populations, but they contribute to the health of fish-bearing lakes and streams and should be damaged as little as possible. Silt goes a long way.

Wise use of pesticides

The use of herbicides and pesticides warrants separate consideration. They represent a major way in which forestry differs from natural disturbance. The suppression of competing organisms by mostly chemical means alters the forest in ways for which forest organisms are ecologically unprepared. Herbicides reduce the abundance of willows, birches and other shrubs that feed game animals and which are part of the natural process of nutrient cycling and stand development. We believe that little is known of the longterm effectiveness and safely of herbicide use in forestry, and that much more research and monitoring of their impacts needs to be done before we can fully endorse this strategy. We do feel that manual approaches should be utilized to their utmost potential.

The O.F.A.H. believes in the judicious use of chemical insecticides to control pest epidemics, but it also supports the development of more ecologically sound alternatives such as biological agents and vegetation management. The biological agent B.t. is one example of a new approach that has been helpful, but is not the answer to pest problems. Research in Ontario has shown that B_t killed (as planned) mainly lepidopterous larvae — but that this killing resulted in the reduction in hatchling success of birds like the spruce grouse. The long-term effects of this agent on nontarget populations is not known, but the data points out that no pest control strategy should be carved in stone. The best alternative should be used at the best time. Spraying schedules, for example, should be timed to the biology of the insect in question, not necessarily to strategy written on paper.

As we learn more  about forest  wildlife, we are learning new  connections

in the pest predator food chains. Larvae of pests such as the jackpine and spruce budworm are known to pupate on the ground. Research has shown that small mammals and birds eat tremendous quantities of these pupae, so many that few adult insects may emerge. And in Newfoundland, one small mammal has actually been airlifted in to help combat a forest insect pest. In 1958, the masked shrew (sorex cinereus), a small but common insectivorous mammal of northern forests, was introduced to Newfoundland to help combat the effects of larch sawfly, which happens to pupate in the soil. We don’tI know how effective the approach was but the Canadian Forestry Service feels their predation is considerable.

4. Переведите вопросы и ответьте на них:

1. How do logging activities change the landscape?

2. What are the major themes of forestry wildlife integration mentioned in the article?

3. What kinds of clearcuts should be favoured to preserve the majority of forest wildlife?

4. What is snag protection necessary for?

5. Why is planning of cutting and plantations recommended?

6. What do access roads provide?

7. What are the strategies minimizing effects on fish mentioned in the article?

8. What is the effect of herbicide usage?

5. Переведите на слух:

To manage wildlife; лесозаготовки; large scale habitat changes; размер, площадь вырубаемых лесов; wide-spread forest fires; места зимования; to be prone to erosion; гибель хищных животных; the wide–ranging species; спелое насаждение; in areas of managed forests; напоминать по результатам воздействия пожара; bird predation; вырубить сухостойный лес; girdled trees; заготовка поврежденных деревьев; to lean soft snags; интенсивное лесопользование; to replace natural regeneration of forest; воздействовать на дикую природу; even-aged, structurally-similar plantations.

6. Переведите текст (рекомендуется для письменного перевода):

Conclusions

• GMO technology is still a relatively new tool in forestry; as a tool, it has potential benefits and drawbacks but is not intrinsically good or bad. It can be argued that since it is technically possible, it may be used, and thus its use should be studied and regulated on a case-by-case basis.

• Genetic modification in forestry is much more than a technical issue; sociocultural values and the multiple uses of forests need to be taken into account and public acceptance is necessary if genetically modified forest trees

are to be deployed.

• Regulatory frameworks for testing, monitoring and management of

GMOs are essential.

• The forestry sector needs to monitor developments regarding GMOs in

agriculture. Regulations adopted in crops are also likely to be used for forest trees, but may need adaptation.

• The economic rationale for investing in genetically modified forest trees for commercial application is not directly apparent at present.

• Reliable, tested and agreed protocols for evaluating risks associated with genetically modified forest trees are necessary, but risk assessment in such long-term crops poses challenges. Developing, testing and approving genetically modified forest trees for wider use may therefore entail high costs and long time frames.

• Basic research on forest tree biology could be the most important application of GMO technology.

• Developing countries will need to develop their scientific capacity and expertise so that they can make independent, informed choices and participate fully in the international dialogue on GMOs.

• FAO intends to continue monitoring genetic modification technology and products in forestry at the global level and ensure availability of objective and reliable information.

Genetic modification and other biotechnologies may have a role to play in plantation forestry in some countries. However, since some 95 percent of the world's forest area is natural or semi-natural, the area planted with genetically modified forest trees is likely to remain relatively small. GMO deployment in forestry, if it occurs, is likely to remain in the domain of the private sector and to follow the agricultural model.

9. Подготовьте итоговое сообщение: “Forestry and wildlife!”

 

Chapter II Forestry

 

 

Lesson   1

Forestry as the art, science and managing forests

 

Terms and expressions

forested land	– лесистая местность
waste land	– пустыня, пустошь
supply of timber	– поставка лесоматериалов
forest manager	– лесничий
felling of timber	– валка леса
reforestation	– восстановление лесных массивов
afforestation	– лесонасаждение, облесение
silviculture	– лесоводство
forest regeneration	– лесовозобновление
tree nursery	– лесной питомник
grow seedlings	– выращивать сеянцы
leaseholder	– арендатор, наниматель
weed control	– борьба с сорняками
insect infestation	– повреждение древесины насекомыми
wildlife conservation	– охрана дикой природы
forest resources	– лесные ресурсы
logging company	– лесозаготовительная компания
selection of species	– селекция видов
tree breeding	– селекция древесных пород
processing of timber	– обработка лесоматериалов
sustainable forestry	– неистощительное лесопользование
forested terrain	– лесистая местность
soil erosion	– эрозия почвы
landsliding	– образование оползней и обвалов
watershed protection	– защита
wildlife habitat	– среда обитания диких животных
wood products	– лесоматериалы
enhance forests	– укреплять леса
forest management	– лесопользование
forestation	– лесоразведение
forest organization	– лесоустройство
harvest	– заготавливать древесину

Introductory exercises

1. Переведите следующие предложения на русский язык:

1. Forestry is management of forested land, together with associated waters and wasteland, primarily for harvesting timber but also for conservation and recreation purposes.

2. The science of forestry is built around the principle of multiple use land management, though the harvesting and replanting of timber are the primary activities.

3. The main objective is to maintain а continuous supply of timber through carefully planned harvest and replacement.

4. The forest manager is also responsible for the application of other land controls, including the protection of wildlife and the implementation of programs to protect the forest from weeds, insects, fungal diseases, erosion, and fire.

5. The planned management of forest originated in early medieval Europe, where laws regulated the felling of timber and the use of forest for hunting.

6. In the 19 ^th century private forestry  schools were  established in Europe

and in 1891 the U.S. government authorized its first reserves of forested land.

7. During the 20 ^th  century many nations have undertaken reforestation or afforestation programs.

2. Найдите в тексте и переведите словосочетания:

Related natural resources; tending of trees and forests; to provide timber; raw material; wood products; wildlife habitat; community protection; applied art; conservation groups; urban parks boards; private landowners; timber harvest; forest regeneration; tree nursery; to grow seedlings; forest management plan; tree inventories; a timber company; cutting rights; state–owned forests; forest tract; forest harvest laws; tree planting; weed control; spacing of young trees; insect infestation; forest mensuration; wildlife conservation; watershed protection; to gather firewood; to graze animals; hunting rights; a sustainable yield of timber; logging companies; selection of species; tree breeding; controlled burning; processing of timber; sound forest stewardship; sustainable forestry; soil erosion; mismanagement of the forest; preservation of wilderness; motorized recreation; mature trees; an acceptably trained forester; to facilitate the way; to ensure forest ecosystems to benefit society; to enhance and protect forests.

3. Переведите текст (рекомендуется для зрительно - устного и зрительно-письменного перевода):

Forestry

Forestry is the art, science, and practice of studying and managing forests and plantations, and related natural resources. Silviculture, а related science, involves the growing and tending of trees and forests. Modern forestry generally concerns itself with assisting forests to provide timber as raw material for wood products; wildlife habitat; natural water quality regulation; recreation; landscape and community protection; employment; aesthetically appealing landscapes; and а 'sink' for atmospheric carbon dioxide. А practitioner of forestry is known as а forester.

Forests have come to be seen as one of the most important components of

the biosphere, and forestry has emerged as а vital field of science, applied art,

and technology. Foresters may be employed by industry, government agencies, conservation groups, urban parks boards, citizens' associations, or private landowners. Industrial foresters are predominantly involved in planning the timber harvests and forest regeneration. Other foresters have the specific jobs which include а broad array of responsibilities. For example, urban foresters work within city environments to enhance urban trees with their unique needs. Some foresters work in tree nurseries growing seedlings for regeneration projects. Others are involved with tree genetics or developing new building systems as forest engineers. The profession has expanded to include а wide diversity of jobs, typically requiring а college bachelor's degree up to the PhD level for highly specialized areas of work.

Traditionally, professional foresters develop and implement "forest management plans". These plans rely on tree inventories showing an area's topographical features as well as its distribution of trees (by species) and other plant cover. They also include roads, culverts, proximity to human habitation, hydrological conditions, and soil reports ecological sensitive areas. Finally, forest management plans include the projected use of the land and а timetable for that use.

Plans for harvest and subsequent site treatment are influenced by the objectives of the land's owner or leaseholder (for instance, а timber company that holds cutting rights to а given tract of land, or the government in the case of state-owned forests). There is an increasing trend to consider the needs of other stakeholders (e.g., nearby communities or neighborhoods, or rural residents living within or adjacent to the forest tract). Plans are developed with the prevailing forest harvest laws and regulations in mind. They ultimately result in а prescription for the harvest of trees, and indicate whether road building or other forest engineering operations are required.

Traditional forest management plans are chiefly aimed at providing logs

as raw material for timber, veneer, plywood, paper, or other industries. Hence, considerations of product quality and quantity, employment, and profit have been of central, though not always exclusive, importance.

Foresters also frequently develop post-harvest site plans. These may can for reforestation (tree planting by species), weed control, fertilization, or the spacing of young trees (thinning of trees that are crowding one another).

Other duties of foresters include preventing and combating insect infestation, disease, forest and grassland fires. Foresters are specialists in measuring and modeling the growth of forests (for mensuration). Increasingly, foresters may be involved in wildlife conservation planning and watershed protection.

History

The use and management of forest resources has а long history in China, dating from the Han Dynasty and taking place under the landowning gentry. In the Western world, formal forestry practices developed during the Middle Ages, when land was largely under the control of kings and barons. Control of the land included hunting rights, and though peasants in many places were permitted to gather firewood and building timber and to graze animals, hunting rights were retained by the members of the nobility. Systematic management of forests for а sustainable yield of timber is said to have begun in about 1500 in Japan [1], and in the German states in the 16th century. Typically, а forest was divided into specific sections and mapped; the harvest of timber was planned with an eye to regeneration.

The enactment and evolution of forestry laws and binding regulations occurred in most Western nations in the 20th century in response to growing conservation concerns and the increasing technological capacity of logging companies.Tropical forestry is а separate branch of forestry which deals mainly with equatorial forests that yield woods such as teak and mahogany. Sir Dietrich

Brandis is considered the father of tropical forestry.

Forestry today

Today а strong body of research exists regarding the managing of forest ecosystems, selection of species and varieties, and tree breeding. Forestry also includes the development of better methods for the planting, protecting, thinning, controlled burning, felling, extracting: and processing of timber. One of the applications of modern forestry is reforestation, in which trees are planted and tended in а given area.

In many regions the forest industry is of major ecological, economic, and social importance. Third-party certification systems that provide independent verification of sound forest stewardship and sustainable forestry have become commonplace in many areas since the 1990s. These certification systems were developed in а response to criticism of forestry practices. Some certifications systems are criticised for primarily acting as marketing tools and lacking in their claimed independence.

In topographically severe forested terrain, proper forestry is important for the prevention or minimization of serious soil erosion or even landsliding. In areas with а high potential for landsliding, good forestry can act to prevent property damage or loss, human injury, or loss of life.

Forest management has become increasingly controversial, with growing public perception concerning, mismanagement of the forest and increasing demands that forest land be managed for other use such as recreation, watershed protection and preservation of wilderness and wildlife habitat. Sharp disagreements over the rule of forest fires, logging, motorized recreation and others drives debate while the public demand for wood products continues to increase.

Forestry education

The first dedicated forestry school was established by Georg Hartig at

Dillenburg in Germany in 1787, though forestry had been taught much earlier in central Europe. The first in North America was established near Asheville, North Carolina, by George Vanderbilt after he saw the devastation logging had caused in the area. The grounds of his Biltmore Estate are almost entirely managed forest, which has grown from bare ground to mature trees since 1895. Early North American foresters went to Germany from the nineteenth century to study forestry. Some early Germany foresters also emigrated to North America.

Today, an acceptably trained forester must be educated in general biology, botany, genetics, soil science, climatology, hydrology, economics and forest management. Education in the basics of sociology and political science is often considered an advantage.

An interesting scope of work opens up for foresters interested in international politics. Organizations such as the Forest Policy Education Network (FPEN) are dedicated to facilitate the way into forest politics and to exchange information on the subject.

Forestry organizations

The International Forestry Students' Association is an association of forestry students worldwide. Their primary goal is to enrich forestry students formal education, especially in terms of а wider, more global perspective through extracurricular activities and the exchange of information and experience.

The Society of American Foresters (SAF) is the national scientific and educational organization representing the forestry profession in the United States. Founded in 1900 by Gifford Pinchot, the SAF mission is to advance the science and practice of forestry, enhance the competency of its members and use the knowledge of the profession to help ensure forest ecosystems and resources to benefit society.

The Institute of Chartered Foresters is the professional body for foresters in

the United Kingdom. The qualifications that it awards are recognized throughout

the European Union.

The Commonwealth Forestry Association (CFA) is an international forestry organization established in 1921, which supports the professional development of those working with trees and forests.

The National Association of Professional Forestry Schools and Colleges (NAPFSC) was founded in 1981 and is composed of 67 organizations and represents university faculty, scientists and forestry specialists working to enhance and protect our forests.

4. Переведите вопросы и ответьте на них:

1. What is forestry?

2. What does silviculture deal with?

3. What are the functions of modern forestry?

4. How may foresters be employed?

5. Could you define duties of foresters?

6. What are applications of modern forestry today?

7. What can forest land be managed for?

8. When was the first forestry school established?

9. How must an acceptably trained forester be educated?

10. Could you name forestry organizations?

5. Переведите на слух:

Silviculture; поставлять лесоматериалы; wood products; среда обитания диких животных; natural water quality regulation; группы по защите окружающей среды; work in tree nurseries; выращивать саженцы; implement “forest management plans”; леса, принадлежащие государству; the harvest of trees; сырье для лесной промышленности; post-harvest site plans; борьбы с сорняками; the spacing of young trees; предупреждение лесных пожаров; modeling the growth of forest; защита водных ресурсов; to gather firewood and building timber; вырубка леса; processing of timber.

6. Переведите устно (рекомендуется для зрительно-устного перевода с подготовкой):

Russian forests