Functions of the Gerund Функции герундия

1. subject (подлежащее)

Experimenting is widely used in different branches of science and industry. Экспериментирование широко используется в различных областях науки и промышленности.

2. object (дополнение)

The students like experimenting. Студентам нравится экспериментирование.

3. attribute (определение)

The method of experimenting usually gives excellent results. Метод экспериментирования обычно дает отличные результаты.

The experimenting process generally takes considerable time. Процесс экспериментирования обычно требует много времени.

4. adverbial modifier (обстоятельство)

The engineer could solve this problem only after experimenting. Инженер смог разрешить эту задачу только после экспериментирования.

5. part of the predicate (именная часть сказуемого)

The best way to solve this problem is experimenting. Лучшим способом решения этой задачи является экспериментирование.

Способы перевода

1. существительным

A thermometer is used for measuring temperature. Термометр используется для измерения температуры.

1.деепричастием

After solidifying the substance changed its colour. Затвердев, вещество изменило свой цвет.

By measuring the temperature of the mixture we can control its state. Измеряя температуру смеси, мы можем измерять ее состояние.

2.неопределенной формой глагола

Measuring temperature is necessary in many experiments. Измерять температуру необходимо при многих опытах.

3.глаголом-сказуемым придаточного предложения

I remember having measured the temperature of the mixture in due time. Я помню, что своевременно измерял температуру смеси.

Перевод герундия с различными предлогами

after	1. после + существительное	2. деепричастие
before	перед, до + существительное
by	1. путем, с помощью, посредством + существительное	2. деепричастие
in	1. при + существительное	2. деепричастие
on / upon	1. при, после, по + существительное	2. деепричастие
without	1. без + существительное	2. не + деепричастие
of	1.существительным в родит. пад.	2. неопределенная форма глагола
for	для + существительное
from	от + существительное

 

It is worth (while) + Gerund - стóит + неопределенная форма глаго ла

cannot help + Gerund - нельзя не + неопределенная фор­ма глагола

it is (of) no use + Gerund - нет смысла (бесполезно) + не­определенная форма глагола It is worth (while) discussing this phenomenon. Стоит обсудить это явление.

Gerund (Forms)

adding Indefinite Active being added Indefinite Passive

having added Perfect Active having been added Perfect Passive

 

Each specimen is tested again after being lowered into the acid. Каждый образец испытывается вновь после погружения в кислоту.

TEXTS FOR READING

 

XI. BUILDINGS

according to согласно, в соответствии с assemblingсборка, монтаж bear – bore – borne нести, перевозить, выдерживать, нести груз bearing wall несущая стена consequentlyследовательно, поэтому dead load постоянная нагрузка dwelling house жилой дом elementэлемент, составная часть enclosureоболочка, ограждение exteriorнаружный, внешний, экстерьер fireproofогнестойкий framingостов, обрамление проема, деревянный каркас from the point of view с точки зрения in addition to кроме,кроме того, в дополнение к incombustible несгораемый joistбалка (потолка, перекрытия) live load временная нагрузка

masonryкаменная кладка mostlyглавным образом, обычно occurслучаться, происходить, встречаться rest upon опираться, лежать на run – ran – run простираться shingleдранка, тонкие доски; галька skeleton construction каркасная или рамная конструкция stuccoнаружная штукатурка stud стойка, распорка, каркас terra cotta терракота, обожженная глина tileкерамическая облицовочная плитка, пустотелый блок, кровельная черепица upper floor верхний этаж veneeredоблицованный wall-bearingнесущий wire glass армированное стекло

THE CLASSIFICATION OF BUILDINGS. The assembling of various structural elements so that each may perform its function is known as framing.

One classification of buildings is on the basis of the functions of the walls. If the walls carry their share of the dead, live or other loads in addition to keeping out the weather, etc. the building is called a wall-bearing construction. But if the loads, including the weight of the walls, are carried by the structural frame, consisting of columns, beams, trusses and arches, the building is called a skeleton construction. The first type is mostly used for civil building type and the second - for the mill building type.

Skeleton construction with structural elements consisting of light wood joists and studs is extensively used in small dwelling house construction but it is not used for larger buildings.

TYPES OF BUILDINGS. The buildings are divided into classes according to the manner of construction.

1. Frame construction. 2. Non-fireproof construction. 3. Fireproof construction.

Frame construction includes all buildings with exterior walls of wooden framework sheathed with wooden shingles; veneered with brick, stone or terra cotta; or covered with stucco or sheet metal. Such buildings naturally have floors and partitions of wood.

Non-fireproof construction includes all buildings with exterior walls of masonry but with wood floor construction and partitions.

Fireproof construction includes all buildings constructed of incombustible material throughout, with floors of iron, steel or reinforced concrete beams. Wood may be used only for under or upper floors, window and door frames, doors and interior finish. Wire glass is used in the windows and all structural and reinforced steel must be surrounded with fireproof material such as hollow terra cotta and gypsum tile.

BEARING WALL AND SKELETON FRAME. From the point of view of method of construction buildings may be divided into the following groups:

1. Bearing wall construction.

2. Skeleton frame construction.

Bearing wall construction has been the method of structural design employed from the earliest days. By their method the loaded floor and roof beams rest upon the exterior and interior walls, which in turn transmit the loads to the foundation. It is evident that the walls must be of sufficient thickness to carry the loads as well as their own weight.

Skeleton frame construction has been made possible by the development of structural steel and later of reinforced concrete. According to this method the loaded floor and roof beams rest upon girders running between the columns. The columns are placed along the building line and are known as exterior or wall columns; they also occur at required intervals within the body of the building, in which case they are called interior columns. A framework is thereby formed, the walls being carried upon the wall girders at each storey level. The walls are consequently mere enclosure bearing no weight and are of the same thickness on all stories. The columns transmit the loads to the foundations.

XII. STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS

addдобавлять alloyсплав, сплавлять appropriateподходящий, соответствующий artificial искусственный block стеновой блок cast iron чугун circularкруглый classклассифицировать continuousсплошной, неразрезной corrugatedрифленый, гофрированный crown венчать, увенчивать, заканчивать curveкривая, изгибать(ся) desire желать, желание effective полезный, эффективный, расчетный endконец, заканчивать; цель

extensively широко horizontalгоризонтальный openingотверстие, проем quiteвполне, совершенно rectangularпрямоугольный seem казаться, по-видимому sideсторона, бок, край, стенка solid твердый, сплошной, цельный spanпролет, расстояние между опорами successfulуспешный suitableподходящий, пригодный take place занять чье-л. место, заместить; иметь место, происходить touchприем, штрих, манера verticalвертикальный wrought iron сварочное железо

The structure of all buildings is made of various combinations and forms of walls, columns, beams and arches. These may be classed as the structural elements.

Walls are continuous usually vertical solid structures forming one of the sides of the building or room. Walls are constructed to enclose areas and to support the weight of floors and roofs. The walls may be solid or hollow. The materials used for the construction of walls can be some forms of masonry, stone, brick, concrete, wood and other natural and artificial materials. Walls of mill buildings are usually constructed of corrugated steel sheets. Walls made of bricks and those built of concrete blocks are suitable both for small buildings and multi-storey structures. Walls may be either covered with wallpaper or only plastered.

Columns are vertical supports either circular or rectangular in shape. In addition to providing support, columns add a decorative touch. In floor construction columns help to support beams and girders when floor joists are used over long span.

Beams are long horizontal pieces of squared timber or steel supported at both ends used to carry the weight of a building. Columns and beams are constructed of timber, steel, light alloy or reinforced concrete. Cast iron was extensively used at one time for columns but steel and reinforced concrete have taken its place. Wrought iron has also been entirely replaced by steel as a structural material.

A truss is a framework supporting a roof, bridge, etc. Trusses are usually constructed of steel but timber is used quite extensively. Reinforced concrete is considered to be the most appropriate material for truss construction and there are many examples of its successful and effective use.

Arches are curved structures supporting the weight of what is above them. Arches of long span are usually constructed of steel and reinforced concrete, but excellent results may be provided with timber when it seems desirable to use that material. Arches over openings in walls are usually constructed of brick, stone or reinforced concrete.

The floors divide a building into stories. They may be either of timber or, in brick buildings, of reinforced concrete details of big and small sizes.

Foundations are to keep the floors and walls from contact with the soil, to act against the action of the frost and to prevent from settlement. The whole structure is crowned by the roof which covers the building and protects it from exposure to the weather.

 

XIII. BUILDING MATERIALS

adventпоявление, приход appearказаться, по-видимому articleизделие be acquainted with быть знакомым с be characteristic ofхарактеризовать bearing structures несущие конструкции bind - bound - bound связывать crushдробить, измельчать crushed stone щебень decay гнить, разрушаться decomposeразлагать на составные части decrease [di 'kri:s] уменьшать(ся) destruction разрушение deteriorate портиться, разрушаться disadvantageнедостаток emphasize подчеркивать externalвнешний fabricateпроизводить far and wide повсюду fasten скреплять, соединять feudal феодальный force сила graniteгранит hardтвердый hardenтвердеть hardness твердость have in view иметь в виду insulateизолировать insulationизоляция join соединять, присоединять kiln обжигать, печь для обжига labourтруд, рабочая сила locality местность manufactureпроизводство, производить meet the requirements отвечать требованиям particular отдельный, особый plane плоскость porosityпористость productiveпроизводительный providedесли qualityкачество, свойство, особенность, характерная черта

binding materials вяжущие материалы burn - burnt - burned гореть, обжигать caseслучай characterize характеризовать clay articlesглиняные изделия clay products глиняные изделия come into use найти применение compactnessплотность refer to ссылаться на, относиться refer to as называться resistanceустойчивость, противодействие, сопротивление sand песок satisfactoryудовлетворительный second второстепенный secondaryвторостепенный silica кремнезем, кварц silica brickсиликатный (динасовый) кирпич sinceс, с тех пор как single единственный, единый skilledквалифицированный society общество sound insulation звукоизоляция specialспециальный speedскорость spread - spread - spreadпростираться, распространяться subject to подвергать воздействию surfacingпокрытие undergo - underwent - undergone претерпевать unless если не urgentсрочный, крайне необходимый water-proof водонепроницаемый water-resistantводонепроницаемый water-tightводонепроницаемый weatherпогода wetвлажный whether ли workработать, обрабатывать, отделывать, разрабатывать, придавать форму work out разрабатывать

Materials that are used for structural purposes should meet several requirements depending upon their practical uses. In most cases it is important that they should be hard, durable, fire-resistant and easily fastened together. We determine whether a material is good for building purposes judging by its qualities. At all times it was important to know how the most commonly used materials - steel, concrete, stone, wood and brick - differed in hardness, durability and fire-resistance.

Wood is the most ancient structural material. It is light, cheap and easy to work. But wood has certain disadvantages: it burns and decays. Stone belongs to one of the oldest building materials used by man. It is characteristic of many properties. They are mechanical strength, compactness, porosity, sound and heat insulation and fire-resistance.

Bricks were known many thousands of years ago. They are examples of artificial building materials. Concrete is referred to as one of the most important building materials. Concrete is a mixture of cement, sand, crushed stone and water. Steel has come into general use¹ with the development of industry. Its manufacture requires special equipment and skilled labour².

All building materials are divided into three main groups:

1. Main building materials such as rocks and artificial stones, timber and metals.

2. Binding materials such as lime, gypsum and cement.

3. Secondary or auxiliary materials which are used for the interior parts of the buildings.

We use main building materials for bearing structures.

Binding materials are used for making artificial stones and for joining different planes.

For the interior finish of the buildings we use secondary materials.

If the materials do not require any technological changes in their chemical structure they are referred to as natural building materials. These are: stone, sand, lime, clay and timber.

The importance of practical knowledge of geology when dealing with building stones is so obvious that it would appear quite unnecessary to emphasize it. The engineer should be acquainted with the general structure of rocks. He must study the manner in which any particular rock weathers in the locality where it is to be used.

For example, granite is generally considered one of the most durable rocks, but if it were used in a climate in which heat and cold alternate, it would decompose when exposed to wet. The advent of various kinds of materials and changes which they are subjected to are closely connected with the development of productive forces in different periods of the progress of human society.

The erecting of large modern buildings would not have been possible, unless new building materials had been used. The great structures of our days required new methods of construction. Had not the building materials used in the structures of the feudal period undergone great changes, no progress in building would have been possible. As the labour of man grew more expensive, the working out of natural stones decreased being replaced by brick which soon came largely into use.

Cement, bricks, clay products and concrete are examples of artificial building materials. The way of making clay articles strong and watertight has been familiar to people since old days. But it is only in the middle ages that the art of kilning spread far and wide. The building of factories, plants and railways required building materials of high strength. It is then that iron and concrete came into use.

At the end of the 19^th and the beginning of the 20^th centuries people began to utilize various artificial stone materials such as silica brick, light concrete and others. We may mark the development of different insulating and surfacing materials due to the progress of house building. The forms in which materials are fabricated are constantly changing. The new materials of construction are characterized by increased resistance to deterioration or destruction by external forces. More satisfactory surfacings are being developed to meet modern requirements. The urgent need in housing makes it necessary to combine the structural, insulating and surfacing requirements in a single system. A greater speed in housing construction will be achieved, provided building materials are changed into units of assembly.

1. стала широко использоваться 2. квалифицированный труд