History of electrical engineering

 

According to thales of Miletus, writing at around 600 BC, a form of electricity was known to the Ancient Greeks who found that rubbing fur on various substances, such as amber, would cause a particular attraction between the two. The Greeks noted that the amber buttons could attract light objects such as hair and that if they rubbed the amber for long enough they could even get a spark to jump. An object found in Iraq in 1938, dated to about 250 BC and called the Baghdad Battery, resembles a galvanic cell and is believed by some to have been used for electroplating.

Electricity has been a subject of scientific interest since at least the 17th century. A friction machine was constructed at about 1663 by Otto von Guericke, using a rotating sulphur globe rubbed by hand. Isaak Newton suggested the use of a glass globe instead of a sulphur one (Optics, 8th Query). In the latter part of the 18th Century, Benjamin Franklin, Ewald Jurgen George von Kleist, and Pieter van musschenbroek (the last two the inventors of the Leyden jar) made several important discoveries concerning electrostatic machines.

The first suggestion of an influence machine appears to have grown out of the invention of Alessandro Volta’s electrophorus. «Doublers» were the first rotating influence machines. Abraham Bennet, the inventor of the gold leaf electroscope, described a «doubler» or «machine for multiplying electric charges». The Bennet’s doubler was developed in 1787.

In the 19th century, the subject of electrical engineering, with the tools of modern research techniques, started to intensify. Notable developments in this century include the work of Georg Ohm, who in 1827 quantified the relationship between the electric current and potential difference in a conductor, Michael Faraday, the discoverer of electromagnetic induction in 1831, and James Clerk Mawwell, who in 1873 published a unified theory of electricity and magnetism in his treatise on Electricity and Magnetism.

In the 1830s, Georg Ohm also constructed an early electrostatic machine. The hopolar generator was developed first by Michael Faraday during his memorable experiments in 1831. It was the beginning of modern dynamos — that is, electrical generators which operate using a magnetic field. In 1878, the British inventor James Wimshurst developed an apparatus that had two glass disks mounted on two shafts (ed. it was not till 1883 that the Wimshurst machine was more fully reported to the scientific community).

During the latter part of the 1800s, the study of electricity was largely considered to be a subfield of physics. It was not until the late 19th century that universities started to offer degrees in electrical engineering. In 1883 Cornell University introduced the world's first course of study in electrical engineering and in 1885 the University College London founded the first chair of electrical engineering in the United Kingdom. The University of Missouri subsequently established the first department of electrical engineering in the United States in 1886.

During this period work in the area increased dramatically. In 1882 Edison switched on the world’s first large-scale electrical supply network that provided 110 volts direct current to fifty-nine customers in lower Manhattan. In 1887 Nikola Tesla filed a number of patents related to a competing form of power distribution known as alternating current. In the following years a bitter rivalry between Tesla and Edison, known as the «War of Currents», took place over the preferred method of distribution. AC eventually replaced DC for generation and power distribution, enormously extending the range and improving the safety and efficiency of power distribution.

The efforts of the two did much to further electrical engineering—Tesla’s work on induction motors and polyphase systems influenced the field for years to come, while Edison’s work on telegraphy and his development of the stock ticket proved lucrative for his company, which ultimately became General Electric. However, by the end of the 19th century, other key figures in the progress of electrical engineering were beginning to emerge. Charles Proteus Steinmetz help fostered the development of alternating current that made possible the expansion of the electric power industry in the United States, formulating mathematical theories for engineers.

Konrad Zuse invented the first electrical computer, the Z22. It still is funcional and stands in Berlin.

During the development of radio, many scientists and inventors contributed to radioo technology and electronics. In his classic UHF* experiments of 1888, Heinrich Hertz transmitted (via a spark-gap transmitter) and detected radio waves using electrical equipment. In 1895, Nikola Tesla was able to detect signals from the transmissions of his New York lab at West Point (a distance of 80.4 km). In 1896, Alexander Popov made the wireless transmissions across 60 m and Guglielmo Marconi, around the same time, made a transmission across 2.4 km. John Fleming invented the first radio tube, the diode, in 1904.

Reginald Fessenden recognized that a continuous wave transmission was required for speech for radio and he continued the work of Nikola Tesla, John Stone Stone, and Elihu Thomson on this subject. By the end of 1906, Fessenden sent the first radio broadcast of voice. Also in 1906, Robert von Lieben and Lee De Forest independently developed the amplifier tube, called the triode. Edwin Howard Armstrong developed in 1914 the FM radio. Manfred von Ardenne later introduced the cathode ray tube, a crucial enabling technology for electronic television, in 1931.

The second world war saw tremendous advances in the field of electronics; especially in RADAR and with the invention of the magnetron by Randle and Boot at the University of Birmingham in 1940. Radio location, radio communication and radio guidance of aircraft were all developed in Britain at this time. An early electronic computing device, «Colossus» was built by Tommy Flowers to decipher the coded messages of the German Lorenz cipher machine*.

Also developed at this time were advanced clandestine radio transmitters and receivers for use by secret agents. An American invention at the time was a device to scramble the telephone calls between Churchill and Roosevelt. This was called the Green Hornet system and worked by inserting noise into the signal. The noise was then extracted at the receiving end. This system was never broken by the Germans.

A great amount of work was undertaken in the United States as part of the War Training Programme in the areas of radio direction finding, pulsed linear networks, frequency modulation, vacuum tube circuits, transmission line theory and fundamentals of electromagnetic engineering. These studies were published shortly after the war in what became known as the ‘Radio Communication Series’ published by McGraw hill 1946. In 1941 Konrad Zuse presented the Z3, the world’s first fully functional and programmable computer.

Prior to the second world war, the subject was commonly known as ‘radio engineering’ and basically was restricted to aspects of communications and RADAR, commercial radio and early television. At this time, study of radio engineering at universities could only be undertaken as part of a physics degree.

Later, in post war years, as consumer devices began to be developed, the field broadened to include modern TV, audio systems, Hi-Fi and latterly computers and microprocessors. In 1946 the ENIAC* of John Presper Eckert and John Mauchly followed, beginning the computing era. The arithmetic performance of these machines allowed engineers to develop completely new technologies and achieve new objectives, including the Apollo missions and the NASA* moon landing.

The invention of the transistor in 1947 by William B. Shockley, John Bardeen and Walter Brattain opened the door for more compact devices and led to the development of the integrated in 1958 by Jack Kilby and independently in 1959 by Robert Noyce. In the mid to late 1950s, the term radio engineering gradually gave way to the name electronics engineering, which then became a stand alone university degree subject, usually taught alongside electrical engineering with which it had become associated due to some similarities.

In 1968 Marcian Hoff invented the first microprocessor at Intel and thus ignited the development of the personal computer. The first realization of the microprocessor was the Intel 4004, a 4-bit processor developed in 1971, but only in 1973 did the Intel 8080, an 8-bit processor, make the building of the first personal computer.

 

*UHF - Ultra High Frequency - сверхвысокая частота

*криптографическая [шифровальная] машина

*ENIAC - Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer

*NASA - National Aeronautics and Space Administration - Национальный комитет по аэронавтике и исследованию космического пространства

 

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Subcutaneous implant

 

The technology now exists and has been successfully tested to allow an identification device of some type, including a tiny microchip, to be implanted under the skin of the hand. Programmable subcutaneous visible implants could contain biosensors to monitor temperature and blood pressure, and display these readings — clearly a medical advancement.

But the devices could have a more serious purpose. They could be used for electronic tagging. Whenever anyone wanted to buy or sell something, he could be required to wave his hand over a scanning device that would read the chip, identify the buyer or seller, and validate or invalidate the sale.

Interval Research (Palo Alto) has patented a «programmable tattoo». The biologically inert subcutaneous implant is constructed of a flexible material so as to conform to the skin’s surface. The small liquid-crystal display can be inserted just beneath the skin (e.g., in place of a wrist watch). Because human skin is partially transparent, the display is clearly visible.

The implant also includes a receiver for receiving programming information from a user, and a display for displaying the programming information through the skin. The display is connected to a control chip and power comes from a small battery. Both of these are implanted beneath the skin. Implanting is an outpatient operation and the battery can be recharged inductively, by holding the wrist near a charger.

We have already demonstrated our willingness to accept devices to electronically tag or track individuals. It has become quite commonplace, for example, for law enforcement agencies to require individuals to wear electronic bracelets in order to monitor their activities.

 

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Digital Angel

 

The Digital Angel™ technology incorporates a microchip that can be worn close to the body and includes biosensors that can measure the biological parameters of the body and send the information with RFID (radio frequency identification) technology to a ground station or computer. It will also have an antenna that can receive signals from GPS satellites, thus pinpointing the location of the wearer.

According the Digital Angel™ web site, while a number of other tracking and monitoring technologies have been patented and marketed in the past, they are all unsuitable for the widespread tracking, recovery and identification of people due to a variety of limitations, including unwieldy size, maintenance requirements, insufficient or inconvenient power-supply and activation difficulties. For the first time in the history of location and monitoring technology, Digital Angel™ overcomes these limitations.

Some of it’s potential uses, according the their web site includes: monitor patients by doctors, commodities supply chain management, locating people such as small children and the elderly, tracking parolees, people under house arrest, and individuals in witness protection programmes, trace valuable items such as art pieces or computer equipment. Of particular interest is its application as an important security measure. It can carry personal identification information and transmit this information via wireless communication with personal computers.

The Digital Angel human implant, called VeriChips, was recently approved by the FDA* for storing medical information and the company is going forward to market their implantable chips that would provide easy access to individual medical records. (WorldNetDaily, October 21, 2004). Applied Digital Solutions, based in Delray Beach, Fla., expressed hope that such medical uses would accelerate the acceptance of under-the-skin ID chips as security and access-control devices (The New York Times, October 14, 2004).

All it takes is a syringe-injected microchip implant for patrons of the Baja Beach Club in Barcelona, Spain to breeze past a «reader» that recognizes their identity, credit balance and even automatically opens doors to exclusive areas of the club for them. «By simply passing by our reader, the Baja Beach Club will know who you are and what your credit balance is», Conrad K. Chase explains.

 

*FDA - Food and Drug Administration - Управление по санитарному надзору за качеством пищевых продуктов и медикаментов (США)

 

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Iriscans

 

Iriscan technology is already being introduced in financial organizations here and abroad that require nonintrusive, noncontact, and accurate electronic identification. Iriscan technology identifies people by analyzing the unique pattern in the iris of the human eye.

The iris is the coloured ring of tissue that surrounds the pupil of the eye and is a complex combination of patterns that can be recorded and stored by the computer. The iris-recognition product captures a photographic image of the iris, analyzes its unique visual structure, and then compares it to previously stored Iriscodes for authentication of identity. Imagine this technology being in place providing access control to facilities and point-of-sale control. It’s already in place at some bank ATMs*.

 

*ATM - automatic teller machine - банковский автомат, банкомат

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Bar Codes

 

Bar codes are everywhere: they are as familiar as a trip to buy groceries. Now part of almost every package that crosses the supermarket, drugstore, and retail counter, bar codes stand poised to move into many other facets of society. In their quest for better device identification, the U.S. Department of Defense and NASA are testing coding systems that pack in much more information than current bar codes. These new «two-dimensional» bar codes can squeeze in enough information to fit the Gettysburg Address into a two-inch square. It's a technology that will open up a whole range of applications.

This next generation of identification codes needs no centralized database. Instead, the symbol itself can contain all the necessary information. Thus these codes can help companies and the military keep better track of products that cross organizational boundaries. When the device, substance or person travels to a new warehouse, store, hospital or location, all its data go along, in compact form, accessible to anyone with a machine that can read the symbol. Miniaturized, some of these new codes can identify electronic components, jewelry or even medical devices. It represents a giant step in component traceability.

 

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