Research Work: Methods and Procedures

Procedures of investigation which are used in the solution of scientific problems can be collectively called the scientific method. Of course, the main features of research in science are the mental insights and logical reasoning.

First, the field of investigation must be decided, the next step is to compile all available information concerning it. It is necessary to mention that the source of the information does not matter much as long as it is accurate. The logical place to look for such information is the university library, from which the search may well lead to larger libraries.

Two approaches are used in biological study. One, which can be called field biology, studies living organisms in their natural environment. This approach is widely used in such branches of biology as botany, zoology, ecology. A masterful example of the field approach was the world-wide collection of data by Charles Darwin.

The second approach is based on studying living organisms and their activities under controlled laboratory conditions. This approach involves experimentation. The experimental methods are widely used in physiology, genetics, and psychology. The combination of field study and laboratory experiment has given modern biology a comprehension of the fundamental laws that govern all life.

From the discoveries of other people and from his own experimentation, the scientist can suggest a hypothesis. If further experimentation seems to confirm the hypothesis but is not conclusive enough, the hypothesis advances to the status of a theory.

If the theory can be tested and proved true, it advances to the status of law. For instance, now many scientists are working at the problems of genetic engineering. Experimentation with the genes confirmed the basic principles of the gene theory.

As a scientist approaches a problem he can best achieve his purpose by being inquisitive, honest, thorough, patient, objective, accurate and corrigible. Although these virtues are generally known as scientific attitudes, they are positive qualities desirable in all human beings. Another positive quality that may seem to have negative connotation is skepticism. Scientists should be skeptical not only about hypothesis and theories but about what are generally recognized as facts.

A scientist is often expected to produce results by reporting his discovery and publishing scientific papers. Regardless of pressure to produce publications, the scientist knows that drawing hasty and careless conclusions based on insufficient data is inexcusable and unpardonable.

 

 

COMPREHENTION CHECK

Exercise 1.Find synonyms to the words and word combinations in column A choosing them from column B.

A	B
investigation	scientific method
to report a discovery	to prove a theory
research	thorough
data	investigate
to collect data	to search for smth.
to look for smth.	to compile information
not conclusive	study
accurate	insufficient
procedures of investigation	to produce a publication
to decide	to draw conclusions
to study	information

 

Exercise 2. Find out the correct translations from В of the following Russian word combinations in A. The English word combinations come

From TEXT A.

	научныйметод	to suggest a hypothesis
	подойти к решению проблемы	to report the discovery
	биологические исследования	branches of biology
	разделы биологии	to decide the field of investigation
	опубликовать результаты открытия	scientific method
	недостаточные данные	to confirm the hypothesis
	выдвинуть гипотезу	to achieve one's purpose
	проверить гипотезу на практике	to approach a problem
	достичь своей цели	the solution of a problem
	доказать теорию	to test a hypothesis
	дальнейшее проведение опытов	further experimentation
	определить область исследования	to prove a hypothesis
	подтвердить гипотезу	biological research
	решение проблемы	insufficient data

 

Exercise 3.. Fill in prepositions. Consult TEXT В in case of difficulty.

1. Research_______ sciences

2. the logical place to look information

3. are used______ biological studies

4. conclusions based interpretation of the data

5. sources_______ new information

6. experimentation ______the genes

7. the hypothesis advances________the status________a theory

8. to produce results_______reporting the discovery

9. regardless______pressure to produce publications

 

STUDY NOTES

Linking words and phrases are used in scientific and technical writing to provide logical reasoning in text development. They often signal a change in subject matter and transition from one point to another.

 

accordingly -поэтому, соответственно

above all - прежде всего, главным образом

anyway - во всяком случае, как бы то ни было

as a consequence - как следствие, в результате

besides - кроме того

consequently - следовательно

meanwhile - тем временем, между тем

moreover - к тому же...

furthermore - кроме того, к тому же

however - однако

incidentally - кстати, между прочим

inaccordancewith — в соответствии с...

nevertheless - тем не менее

nowthat - теперь, когда

otherwise - иначе, а то...

similarly - также, аналогично, подобным образом

thereafter — после этого

therefore - поэтому, следовательно

thus - таким образом

undoubtedly - несомненно

indeed - в самом деле, действительно

next - затем

likewise - также

hence - отсюда, из того следует

 

 

Exercise 1.Put one of the following linking words or phrases into each gap. There are eleven gaps. Two of the words or phrases aren’t used:

as a result, above all, which, before, and, especially, although, however, this is why, such as, on the contrary, if, so

 

Doing regular exercise can be dangerous, _____ if you are over 40. _________it is a very good idea to see your doctor _______ starting, if you think you are not very fit. Some people try to exercise too vigorously too soon, and ____________ they cause themselves injuries ___________ can take a long time to heal. ________ it is not only older people who should take care. Doctors report many injuries___________ backaches, sprained ankles and pulled muscles, which can all be avoided___________ a little care is taken. If you do injure yourself, rest for a while ________ allow your body to recover naturally. ________, don't push yourself because you think it is doing you good. _________, you could do yourself permanent damage.

 

 

 

UNIT 3

PRE-TEXT TASKS

Study carefully the list of phrases and their Russian equivalents to avoid any difficulty in working through text A.

 

	since that time	с того времени, с тех пор
	set	набор
	hereditary determinants	определяющие факторы наследственности, наследственные признаки
	each cell is enabled to fulfil the destinies of its own particular lineage	каждая клетка способна реализовать предопределенные для данного ряда поколений наследственные признаки
	concerned in...	(зд.) которые участвуют в
	a particular protein that contributes to either the structure or the functioning	специфический белок, который участвует в создании либо структуры, либо функции
	have been assigned to approximate locations on chromosomes	были закреплены за приблизительно определенными местами на хромосомах
	to splice	соединять
	set to work to deciphering	принялись за расшифровку
	tucked into the nucleus	которые «укрыты» в ядре
	protein synthesis will be faulty	синтез белков будет нарушен
	with gene in hand	определив ген, установив местоположение гена

 

TEXT A

Genetics and Heredity

Modern genetics began to develop very rapidly in the second decade of the 20th century though the foundation of it was laid by Gregor Mendel between 1857 and 1865. Since that time1 geneticists in all parts of the world have cooperated in establishing the chromosome theory of heredity.

Usually the chromosomes of a given species are individually distinguishable, and exactly the same set appears at mitosis in all cells of the individual and of the species.

The chromosome number varies in different organisms from 2 to 200 or more, but usually it is below 50 (man has 46). Not only the number of chromosome but also the size and shape of each chromosome remain constant.

Each chromosome carries a specific group of hereditary determinants – the genes. These carry coded instructions by means of which each cell is enabled to fulfill the destinies of its own particular lineage. Chromosomes contain DNA, RNA and protein, and these constitute the genetic material of the cell.

There are two chromosomes concerned in sex determination and they are not completely homologous. The male carries two chromosomes for sex called X and Y. The female carries two chromosomes. The factor that determines whether the offspring shall be male or female is the presence of a Y or an X chromosome in the male gamete.

Some knowledge of the substance concerned in transmission of hereditary factors has been gained in the last 40 years. We know that a gene is very small. Experiments have shown that there are about 10 000 genes carried on the chromosome of Drosophila, commonly called the fruit fly. The search for human genes has only begun. The estimated number of genes in human DNA is 100 000. Each gene is found in the nucleus of every one of the human body’s trillion cells (with the exception of red blood cells, which have no nuclei). And each gene is responsible for the manufacture of a particular protein that contributes to either the structure or the functioning6 of the body. Fewer than 2000 genes have been assigned to approximate locations on chromosomes.

Armed with the ability to cut, splice and transplant genetic material, scientists set to work deciphering the estimated 100 000 genes tucked into the nucleus of virtually every human cell. Collectively, genes comprise the complete set of chemical instructions for making a human body. Each gene codes for the production of a single polypeptide (a protein component). Thousands of proteins give the human body function and form.

If the gene is defective, protein synthesis will be faulty and a deformity or genetic disease will result. More than 4000 inherited disorders are due to single-gene defects. Many more are thought to be influenced by multiple genes or by a combination of genes and environment. Locating a specific disease-associated gene on one of 46 chromosomes – the genetic material inherited in equal parts from each parent – gives researchers the basis for a diagnostic test. With gene in hand, it may also be possible understanding the disease and developing treatment for it.

 

COMPREHENTION CHECK