Тексты для аналитического чтения

МИНИСТЕРСТВО ОБРАЗОВАНИЯ И НАУКИ РОССИЙСКОЙ ФЕДЕРАЦИИ

ПЕРМСКИЙ ИНСТИТУТ (ФИЛИАЛ)

Федерального государственного бюджетного образовательного

учреждения высшего профессионального образования

«Российский экономический университет им.Г.В. Плеханова»

 

Кафедра иностранных языков

 

 

УТВЕРЖДЕНО

Методическим советом

Протокол №1

От «29» августа 2017 г.

 

АНГЛИЙСКИЙ ЯЗЫК

Учебно-методическое пособие

для студентов II курса заочной формы обучения

всех факультетов и направлений

(полный курс обучения)

3 семестр

 

Рассмотрено на заседании

кафедры иностранных языков 29.08.2017 г.

протокол №1

и. о. зав. кафедрой ин. яз., к.ф.н., доцент Нестерова С.В.

 

Пермь 2017

 

 

Методические рекомендации и контрольные задания разработаны на основе Федеральных Государственных образовательных стандартов ВПО третьего поколения и программы по иностранным языкам РЭУ им. Г.В. Плеханова.

 

 

Составитель: старший преподаватель кафедры иностранных языков Пермского института (филиала) Российского экономического университета им. Г.В. Плеханова Валетова Л.Е.

 

Рецензенты: Авхачева И.А. – кандидат педагогических наук, доцент кафедры иностранных языков и межкультурной коммуникации Пермского национального исследовательского политехнического университета.

 

 

Выбор варианта контрольной работы.

Вариант контрольной работы выбирается по последней цифре номера зачетной книжки: с 1 по 5 (1-5 вариант), с 6 по 10 (1- 5 варианты).

 

Общие методические указания

 

Учебно-методическое пособие предназначено для студентов-бакалавров II курса (3 семестр) заочной формы обучения факультетов: коммерции, учетно-финансового и менеджмента Пермского института (филиала) Российского экономического университета им. Г.В. Плеханова, обучающихся по полной программе.

Цель настоящего пособия – подготовить студентов к чтению и пониманию оригинальной литературы на английском языке по специальности широкого профиля.

В пособие включены тексты с предтекстовыми и послетекстовыми заданиями, тесты для самоконтроля и варианты контрольных работ. Для изучения теоретического грамматического материала и выполнения тренировочных упражнений по грамматике рекомендуется соответствующая литература.

Пособие рассчитано на самостоятельную работу студентов вне аудитории. Во время сессии в аудитории под руководством преподавателя может выполняться только ограниченное количество тренировочных упражнений и заданий. Преподаватель дает рекомендации по организации самостоятельной работы студентов, а также помогает в освоении наиболее трудных грамматических явлений, не имеющих аналогов в русском языке.

Студентам рекомендуется такая последовательность работы над учебным материалом:

1. Изучение лексико–грамматического материала.

2. Выполнение тренировочных упражнений.

3. Выполнение предтекстовых и послетекстовых упражнений

4. Чтение, перевод и пересказ содержания текстов.

5. Выполнение тестовых заданий в режиме самоконтроля и взаимоконтроля (работа по ключу) и контроля со стороны преподавателя.

6. Выполнение контрольных работ (варианты 1, 2, 3, 4, 5)

 

На зачете или экзамене студент должен предъявить преподавателю:

1. Тетрадь с проработанным материалом.

2. Словарную тетрадь с лексикой проработанных текстов.

3. Тетрадь с отрецензированными контрольными работами.

 

Требования к студентам на экзамене и зачете

К зачету или к экзамену допускаются студенты, выполнившие контрольные работы, предусмотренные графиком, и сдавшие материал текстов учебника или пособий по профилю вуза, предусмотренные тематическим планом.

 

 

Для получения зачета студент должен уметь:

a) Прочитать со словарем текст на английском языке, содержащий изученный грамматический материал (чтение вслух и устный перевод). Норма перевода –1000 – 1200 печатных знаков в час.

b) Прочитать про себя без словаря текст, содержащий изученный грамматический материал и 5-8 незнакомых слов на 500-600 печатных знаков. Передать кратко содержание прочитанного на родном языке. Время подготовки 8-10 минут.

 

Для получения итогового экзамена на II–ом курсе студент должен уметь:

a) Прочитать со словарем текст по специальности, соответствующий профилю факультета (менеджмент, коммерция, бухучет и т.д.). Форма проверки понимания – чтение вслух и письменный перевод. Норма перевода – 1000-1200 печатных знаков в час.

b) Читать (про себя) без словаря текст, содержащий изученный грамматический материал и 8-10 незнакомых слов на 800 печатных знаков. Передать кратко содержание прочитанного на родном языке. Время подготовки 6-8 минут.

 

Перечень рекомендуемых учебников и учебных пособий:

1. Агабекян И.П. English for Managers. Английский язык для менеджеров: учеб. пособие. - М.: проспект, 2009.

2. Агабекян И.П., Коваленко П.И., Кудряшова Ю.А. Английский для экономистов: учеб. пособие. – М.: Проспект, 2009.

3. Богацкий И.С., Дюканова Н.М. Бизнес-курс английского языка. Словарь-справочник. Под общей ред. Богацкого И.С. – 5-е изд. Киев: ООО «ИП Логос-М», 2010.

4. Миловидов В.А. Все правила английского языка: справ. пособие/В.А. Миловидов. – М.: АСТ Астрель: Полиграфиздат, 2012.

5. Плюхина З.А. Английский для бухгалтеров и аудиторов + CD-ROM. - М.: ГИС, 2009.

6. Хведченя Л.В. Английский язык для поступающих в вузы/Л.В. Хведченя, Р.В. Хорень – 19-е изд. Минск: Соврем. шк., 2006.

7. Шевелева С.А., Скворцова М.В. English on Economics: учеб. пособие для вузов. М.: ЮНИТИ, 2002.

 

III семестр

Для того, чтобы успешно выполнить контрольную работу за III семестр, необходимо усвоить следующие разделы курса:

1. Косвенная речь (просьбы и приказания в косвенной речи).

2. Придаточные предложения условия и времени, действие которых относится к будущему.

3. The Past Continuos Tense.

4. The Past Perfect Tense.

5. Местоимения some, any, no, every и производные от них.

6. Эквиваленты модальных глаголов.

7. Пассивный залог.

8. Participle II.

9. The Complex Object.

 

 

В связи с тем, что в настоящее время существует достаточное количество различных пособий и справочников по грамматике, рекомендуется самостоятельное изучение грамматического материала. Наиболее сложные вопросы обсуждаются во время аудиторных занятий.

Более подробные рекомендации изложены в приведенной ниже таблице. Рекомендуемые пособия – «Английский язык для поступающих в вузы» автор Хведченя Л.В., «Английский язык для экономистов» автор Коваленко П.И.

 

Тема	Теоретический материал	Упражнения для закрепления
1. Косвенная речь	стр. 163-164 (Хведченя Л.В.)	стр. 167 упр. 6
2. Придаточные условия и времени	стр. 186 (Коваленко П.И.)	стр. 16 упр. 9.4
3. The Past Continuos Tense The Past Perfect Tense	стр. 106-108 (Хведченя Л.В.)     стр. 53-55 (Коваленко П.И.)	стр. 109 упр. 1б, 2, стр. 110 упр. 5 стр. 114 упр. 1б стр. 115 упр. 5 стр. 55 упр. 5.6, 5.7, 5.8, 5.9, 5.10, 5.11, 5.12.
4. Местоимения some, any, no, every и производные от них.	стр. 70 (Хведченя Л.В.) стр. 38-39 (Коваленко П.И.)	стр. 71 упр. 1 стр. 72 упр. 2 стр. 39 упр. 3.4, 3.5, 3.6.
5. Эквиваленты модальных глаголов	стр. 145-148 (Хведченя Л.В.) стр. 65-66 (Коваленко П.И.)	стр. 149-150 упр. 3, 4, 5, 7. стр. 66 упр. 6.7, 6.8, 6.9.
6. Пассивный залог	стр. 151-156 (Хведченя Л.В.) стр. 73 (Коваленко П.И.)	стр. 156-158 упр. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 стр. 73 упр. 7.3, 7.4, 7.5, 7.8, 7.7.
7. Participle II	стр. 180-183 (Хведченя Л.В.) стр. 80 (Коваленко П.И.)	стр. 184-185 упр. 1б, 2, 3б
8. The Complex Object	стр. 78 (Коваленко П.И.)	стр. 78 упр. 8.2, 8.3

The Sole Proprietor

The different types of business organization to be found in the UK and most other countries may be classified under five headings: the sole proprietor, the partnership, the joint stock company, the cooperative society and the public corporation.

The sole proprietor is the simplest and the oldest form of business enterprise and often referred to as the one-person business. A single person provides the capital, takes the decisions and assumes the risks. He or she is solely responsible for the success or failure of the business and has, therefore, the sole rights to such profits as may be made, or, alternatively, bears the sole responsibility for such losses as may accrue. The one-person business is still far more numerous than any other types of business organisation, but in terms of total output, it is relatively unimportant compared with the joint stock company.

The strength of this type of firm lies in the direct personal interest of the proprietor in the efficiency of his enterprise. Ownership and control are vested in one person who enjoys all the fruits of success and hence has a great incentive to run the firm efficiently. Since the proprietor is the sole decision-taker and has no need to consult colleagues when changes of policy are required we should expect this type of organisation to be extremely flexible and capable of quick and easy adjustment to changes in market conditions.

The great disadvantage of the sole proprietor from an enterprise lies in the fact that the owner is personally liable for the debts incurred by his firm and his liability is unlimited. All his personal possessions are at risk and may be seized to meet creditor demands in the event of the business becoming insolvent. Another disadvantage of this type of firm is the strict limitation of its ability to acquire capital for expansion. Finance is restricted to the amounts which the entrepreneur is able to provide from his own resources and whatever sums he can borrow on his own security.

We find the one-person business prevalent in farming, retailing, building, repair and maintenance work, and personal services such as hairdressing.

 

Prices and Markets

1. Прочтите следующие слова:

Determinant, valuable, commodity, subjective, worth, transaction, reveal, nowadays, kind, arise, necessarily, familiar, meaning, arrangement, requirement, efficiently, foreign, participants, countrywide, world-wide, foodstuffs.

Price and Value

Price is not the same thing as value. Things are ‘valuable’ because people think they are, and for no other reason. The ‘value’ which an individual places on a commodity cannot be measured; its value will be different for different people. This kind of subjective value is not the concern of the economist who is interested only in ‘value in exchange’. The economic worth of value of a commodity can only be measured in some kind of market transaction which reveals the value of the thing in terms of what is offered in exchange for it. If to exchange 25 lb. of potatoes for 5 lb. of sugar, the ‘price’ of 1 lb. of sugar is 5 lb of potatoes. Nowadays practically all exchanges represent an exchange of goods and services for money, and prices in terms of money are the market value of the things they buy.

Markets

Prices arise in exchange transactions and this implies some kind of market. This need not, necessarily, be a fixed location – a building or a market place. We are all familiar with the open and covered markets in the centres of our towns, but in the modern world the word ‘market’ has a much wider meaning. Any effective arrangement for bringing buyers and sellers into contact with one another is defined as a market. Small ad. columns of a local newspaper provide a very efficient market for second-hand cars, for example. Face-to-face contact between buyers and sellers is not a requirement for a market to be able to operate efficiently. In the foreign exchange market, buyers and sellers are separated by thousands of miles, but the knowledge of what is happening in the market is just as complete, and the ease of dealing is just as effective as if the participants were in the same room.

For some commodities, notably fresh fruit and vegetables, the traditional market is still the normal arrangement, but for most goods the market is a national one. Most consumer goods in developed countries are bought and sold on a countrywide basis. For other commodities the market is world-wide. This is particularly true of the more important primary products such as rubber, tin, copper and oil, and of the basic foodstuffs such as meat, wheat, sugar, tea and coffee. Most of the products of advanced technology also have world markets, for example, computers, airplanes, ships and motor cars.

The price of any commodity under market conditions is determined by the forces of supply acting through the sellers and the forces of demand acting through the buyers, both determine the market price.

 

Money

1. Прочтите следующие слова:

Society, civilization, adequately, frustrating, surplus, cumbersome, coincidence, merely, disposal, similar, triangular, major, acceptable, medium, amazing, valuation, immediately, wealth, deteriorate, purchase, spread, pattern, installment.

2. Прочтите и переведите следующие группы слов:

An essential tool of civilisation, the direct exchange of goods and services, the great disadvantage of barter, a laborious system of exchange, an amazing variety of goods and services, a piece of furniture, the value of one commodity, a means of making deferred payments, in the case of hire purchase contacts.

3. Запомните следующие слова и словосочетания:

Acceptable - приемлемый

Adequately - адекватно

Arrangement - устройство

Article - изделие, товар

Coincidence - совпадение

Consider - рассматривать

Cumbersome - громоздкий, обременительный

Deferred payment - отсроченный платеж

Delivery - доставка

Deteriorate - портиться

Devote - посвящать

Exchange rate - обменный курс

Face - сталкиваться с чем-л.

Frustrating - бесполезный

Hire purchase - аренда с опционом покупки

Hold - держать

Invention - изобретение

Installment - рассрочка

Insure - гарантировать, страховать

Laborious - затрудненный

Medium - средство, способ

Merely - только, просто

Need - потребность, нужда

Payment - платеж

Promise - обещание

Rely upon - полагаться на …

Remove - удалять

Seek out - искать

Similar - подобный, похожий

Spread - распределять, распространять

Stock - запас

Store - хранить, запасать

Surplus - добавка

Trading - торговый

Whereby - посредством чего-л.

4. Определите к какой части речи относятся следующие слова:

Greatest, invention, indicate, extent, cumbersome, coincidence, merely, laborious, triangular, furniture, adoption, valuation, equal, immediately, convenience, addition.

5. Образуйте существительные от следующих глаголов:

Invent, indicate, exchange, serve, require, direct, specialise, increase, vary, satisfy, want, produce, arrange, adopt, measure, solve, act, store, consider, accumulate, distribute, add, explain.

 

Money

Money is one of man’s greatest inventions and the fact that all but the least developed of human societies use money indicates that it is an essential tool of civilization. In the absence of some form of money, exchange may take the form of barter which is the direct exchange of goods and services. Barter will serve man’s requirements quite adequately when he provides most of his needs directly and relies upon market exchanges for very few of the things he wants. As the extent of specialisation increases, the barter system proves very inefficient and frustrating. In the simplest societies each family will provide by its own efforts most of its needs and perhaps some small surpluses. A farmer will exchange any small surplus of food, wool or hides for the surpluses of other producers. But this system of exchange becomes very cumbersome as economic activities become more specialised. A specialist metal worker must seek out a large number of other specialists in order to obtain, by barter, the variety of goods he needs to satisfy his daily wants.

The great disadvantage of barter is the fact that it depends upon a ‘double coincidence of wants’. A hunter who wants to exchange his skins for corn must find not merely a person who wants skins, but someone who wants skin and has a surplus of corn for disposal. The alternative is to exchange his skins for some other article and then carry out a series of similar exchanges until he finally gets his corn. Time and energy which could be devoted to production is spent on a laborious system of exchange.

Quite early in his history man discovered a much more convenient arrangement. The use of some commodity as a medium of exchange makes exchange triangular and removes the major difficulty of the barter system. If a commodity is generally acceptable in exchange for goods and services, it is money. A producer now exchanges his goods for money and the money can be exchanged for whatever goods and services he requires.

The Function of Money

1) A medium of exchange.

The use of money as a medium of exchange makes possible a great extenuation of the principle of specialisation. In an advanced society the use of money allows us to exchange hours of labour for an amazing variety of goods and services. We can exchange, for example, two weeks’ labour for a holiday abroad just as easily as we can exchange it for a piece of furniture. Such exchanges are taken for granted yet they would be inconvenient without the use of money.

2) A measure of value.

The first step in the use of money was probably the adoption of some commodity as a unit of account or measure of value. Money, most likely, came into use within the barter system as means whereby the values of different goods could be compared. The direct exchange of goods for goods would raise all sorts of problems regarding valuation. For example, “how many bushels of corn are equal in value to one sheep, if twenty sheep exchange for three cows and one cow exchanges for ten bushels of corn?” The problem of exchange rates is easily solved when all other commodities are valued in terms of a single commodity which then acts as a standard of value. Money now serves as such a standard and when all economic goods are given money values (i.e. prices), we know immediately the value of one commodity in terms of any other commodity.

3) A store of value.

Once a commodity becomes universally acceptable in exchange for goods and services, it is possible to store wealth by holding a stock of this commodity. It is a great convenience to hold wealth in the form of money. Consider the problems of holding wealth in the form of some other commodity, say, wheat. It may deteriorate. It is costly to store, it may be insured and there will be significant handling costs in accumulating and distributing it. In addition, its money value may fall when it is being stored. The great disadvantage of holding wealth in the form of money has become very apparent in recent years - during periods of inflation its exchange value falls.

4) A means of making deferred payments.

An important function of money in the modern world, where so much business is conducted on the basis of credit, is to serve as a means of deferred payment. When goods are supplied on credit, the buyer has immediate use of them but does not have to make an immediate payment. The goods can be paid for three or perhaps six months after delivery. In the case of hire purchase contracts, the buyer takes immediate delivery but pays by means of installments spread over one, two or three years.

A complex trading organization based upon a system of credit can only operate in a monetary economy. Sellers would be most unlikely to accept promises to pay in the future which were expressed in terms of commodities other than money. They would have no idea how much of the commodities they would need in the future, and if they do not want them, they face the trouble and risks involved in selling them. Sellers will accept promises to pay expressed in terms of money because, whatever the pattern of their future wants, they can be satisfied by using money.

 

Vocabulary

 

Permanent – постоянный Ratify - ратифицировать

Machinery – оборудование, механизм Commence - приступать

Collaboration – сотрудничество Milestones – вехи

Facilitate – способствовать Shortfall – недостаток

Monitor – наблюдать, контролировать Inception – открытие, основание

Annual – ежегодный Stockpiles – запасы

Avoid – избегать, остерегаться Amendment – поправка

Tenet – основополагающий принцип Seek –искать

Serveillance – патрулирование Enunciation – изложение

Supplementary – дополнительный Contingency – возможность

Exogenous – экзогенный Embodied - воплощенный, содержащийся в

General understanding:

1) What is the function of International Monetary Fund?

2) What do IMF monitor’s members do?

3) What are the daily affairs of IMF?

4) When was IMF established?

 

I. Translate into Russian:

1) The IMF’s charter was agreed upon at the International Monetary and Financial Conference.

2) Inception of the buffer stock financing facility, which can be used to finance commodity stockpiles.

3) Adoption of the first amendment to the Articles of Agreement, providing for the allocation of special drawing rights (SDRs) to member countries.

4) Establishment of the supplementary financing facility to make additional resources available to member countries.

5) Expansion of the compensatory financing element under which additional financing may be provided to support adjustment programs.

 

II. What do the following abbreviations mean:

a) IMF

b) GAB

c) Washington D. C.

d) SDR

 

IMF’s Anatomy

Each member country is represented by a governor on the IMF’s Board of Governors, most of whom are ministers of finance, presidents of the country’s central bank, or persons of similar rank. Virtually all day-to-day policy decisions are delegated to the Executive Board, which is made up of 22 representatives of the member countries. The Executive Board is presided over by the managing director, elected for a 5-year term, who is also chief of staff of the IMF.

Each member has a quota, which is based on a complex formula that takes account of the country’s size and its general importance in world trade and finance. The quota determines the amount of financial resources the member has to make available to the IMF (subscription) and its access to the Fund’s facilities, its entitlement to SDR allocations, as well as its voting power. Part of each member’s subscription is paid in reserve assets, and the remainder in the member’s own currency.

 

Operations

IMF member countries may utilize the Fund’s resources if they find themselves in balance of payments difficulties. Drawings normally will be in the context of policy measures - an adjustment program - intended to correct the balance of payments position and are linked to progress under that program. Technically, use of the Fund’s resources takes the form of a member using its own currency to purchase other currencies (or SDRs) held by the IMF. Drawings on the Fund’s resources that do not exceed 25 percent of the member’s quota normally require that the member make a reasonable effort to overcome its balance of payments problem. Purchases beyond that amount - i. e., drawings in the so called upper credit tranches - usually are made in the context of an adjustment program. Repayments to the IMF are normally to be made within 3 to 5, but under the extended facility the country may have up to 10 years to repay the financing provided by the Fund.

 

Vocabulary

Rank - ранг

Preside - председательствовать

Quota - квота

Entitle - давать право кому-л.

Remainder - остаток

Correct - корректировать, исправлять

Link - соединять

Reasonable effort - разумное усилие

Tranche - транш, порция

 

General understanding:

 

1. Who are the governors of IMF’s Board of Governors?

2. Who presides over Executive Board?

3. How is the managing director elected?

4. What importance has “quota” for the members of IMF?

5. What operations could be carried out through IMF?

6. How have the total subscriptions changed over time?

 

I. Explain the role (meaning) and functions of the following. Write 2 sentences with each one:

1) Member countries

2) Board of Governors

3) Executive board

4) Managing director

5) Quota

 

II. Which of the following is true:

1) IMF is composed of 22 Governors.

2) The quota determines the amount of financial resources the member has to make available to the IMF.

3) IMF member countries may utilize the Fund’s resources.

4) Borrowing countries have to pay the loans back within 3-5 years.

 

World Bank

 

The World Bank is the world’s foremost intergovernmental organization concerned with the external financing of the economic growth of developing countries. The official title of the institution is the International Bank Reconstruction and Development (IBRD).

Before recommending a Bank loan, the staff of the Bank must be reasonably satisfied that the productivity of the borrowing country will be increased and that the prospects for repayment are good. A country must be judged creditworthy. Engineering investigations are frequently carried out to determine the probable relation of a proposed project to benefits and costs. Increasingly, however, the Bank has shifted somewhat away from project landing (e. g., for a dam or a highway or a port); it has become concerned with education and other human services, the environment, and, through structural adjustment loans, the modification of governmental policies that are thought to have impeded long-run growth. The bank has also paid increasing attention to the evaluation of previous lending. Recently, moreover, it has acceded to the requests of the American secretary of the treasury to help to ease the huge, outstanding, largerly commercial bank debt.

Voting power in the Bank (as well as in the Fund) is determined by the size of each member nation’s subscription. Subscriptions, in turn, are based on a formula that takes into account such variables as the value of each nation’ foreign trade and its total output. Ultimate power, through weighted voting, rests with the Board of Governors of the Bank (and the Fund). The governors meet annually in September. The day-to-day affairs of the bank are determined, however, by executive directors who live permanently in Washington D.C. they hire a president of the Bank is an American, usually a banker, proposed by the president of the United States.

Because of the size of their subscriptions, five nations - the United States, Japan, Germany, the United Kingdom and France - are entitled to appoint executive directors; the remaining seventeen directors are elected by some combination of the votes of the other nations.

The Soviet Union was one of the forty-four governments whose representatives signed the original Bretton Woods agreements, but along with the other members of the Warsaw Pact, it chose not to join the Bank or the Fund when these organizations were formally incorporated in 1946.

Today, the World Bank Group is a far cry from what it was when the World Bank began in 1946. The World Bank Group has had a significant positive effect on the flow of capital to the poorer countries of the world, both directly and indirectly

 

Vocabulary

Foremost intergovernmental - наиболее межправительственный

Prospects for repayment - перспективы выплаты долга

Be carried out - производиться, осуществляться

Dam - дамба, плотина

Accede - удовлетворять, соглашаться

Subscription - подписка

Take into account - принимать в расчет

Day-to-day affairs - повседневные дела

Hire - нанимать

Appoint - назначать

Join - присоединять(ся)

Supplement - добавка, приложение

Equity - справедливость

Constitute - являться, составлять

Grace - удостаивать

Concessionary - льготный

Replenishments - пополнения

A far cry - абсолютно другая вещь

Dozen - дюжина

Eve of the accession - накануне прихода к власти

Scattered - быть разбросанным

Enormously - чрезвычайно

 

General Understanding

 

1. What is World Bank?

2. What is the procedure of getting a loan from the World Bank?

3. What are the latest trends in the policy of the World Bank?

4. How is the voting power determined?

5. What are the largest subscribers of the World Bank?

 

I. Define the following:

1. Intergovernmental organization

2. Borrowing country

3. Prospects for repayment

4. Member’s subscription

5. Day-to-day affairs

6. Concessionary assistance

 

II. Translate into Russian:

1. The official title of the institution is the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD).

2. A country must be judged creditworthy.

3. They hire a president, who, in turn, hires a staff.

4. The Soviet Union was one of the forty-four governments whose representatives signed the original Bretton Woods agreements.

5. Today, the World Bank Group is a far cry from what it was when the World Bank began in 1946.

 

Manners of Payment

But in modern business transactions the following manners of payment are often applied:

1) Payment by drafts (Bills of Exchange - B/E):

The Exporter credits the Importer which is advantageous to the latter. A draft is an order in written form from a Creditor to a Debtor to pay on demand or no named date a certain sum of money to a company which is named on the Bill, or to their order. It’s drawn by the Sellers on the Buyers and is sent through a bank to the Buyers for acceptance. The draft becomes legally binding when signed and dated by the Buyers on its face and it is to be met when due, i. e. 30, 60 or 90 days after presentation.

The draft may be negotiable. If the Exporter wants immediate payment, he can discount the draft. All this makes the draft a very practical method of payment in foreign trade. To sum up its advantages one should say that it simplifies the financing of export and import foreign trade and cuts down numerous movements of currency.

2) Payment in advance:

The Importer credits the Exporter, for example, the contract may stipulate a 10 or 15 % advance payment, which is advantageous to the Sellers. This method is used when the Buyers are known to the Sellers.

3) Payment in an open account:

Open account terms are usually granted by the Sellers to the regular Buyers or customers in whom the Sellers have complete confidence, but sometimes they are granted if the Sellers want to attract new clients. Actual payment is made monthly, quarterly, annually as agreed upon. This method is disadvantageous to the Exporters, but may be good to gain new markets. Payments in cash and on credit are very often combined in a Contract. The currency for payment is a matter for arrangement between the parties to the Contract.

Each economic agent during the execution of the transaction wants to stand the most attractive method of payment to himself, which is the best in appropriate market conditions. In this way parties must always find a compromise.

 

Terms of delivery

The Contract of sale stipulates the price and the terms of delivery, which constitute the framework of the subsequent agreements on financing, insurance and transportation. In accordance with the responsibilities of the parties in respect of the expenses of delivery and the risks of accidental damage to or loss of the goods there may be various terms of delivery. Most frequently used terms of delivery in international trade are CIF (cost, insurance, freight) and FOB (free on board). A CIF price includes apart from the value of the goods the sums paid for insurance and freight (and all other transportation expenses up to the place of destination). A FOB price only includes the value of the goods, transportation and other expenses until the goods are on board the vessel. On FOB and CIF terms the Sellers bear the risk of accidental loss of or damage to the goods until the goods pass the ship’s rail. Other terms of delivery that may be used in foreign trade are:

1. FAS = free alongside ship, which means that the sellers pay for all the charges up to and including the placing of the goods alongside ship but do not pay for loading.

2. CAF = cost and freight, which means that the Sellers undertake to pay for the cost of transportation of the goods to a specified destination. The risk passes when the goods have crossed the ship’s rail at the port of loading. If the goods are carried by liners, the Sellers have to unload them at the port of destination for their account. If not by liners, the counterparts may agree to this effect, then it is indicated “cost and freight landed”.

3. Ex ship with port of destination indicated which means that the Sellers pay for all charges up to and including the placing of the goods at the disposal of the Buyers on board the vessel at the port of destination. The risk passes accordingly.

4. Ex quay with port of destination indicated, which means that the Sellers pay for unloading the goods and the risk doesn’t pass until the goods are placed on the quay in the port of destination.

5. The choice of the terms of delivery and the terms of payment as a rule remains with the Buyers, so they can insist, while negotiating a contract on choosing those, which they find most suitable for them.

 

What is a manager?

A number of different terms are often used instead of the term "manager", including "director", "administrator" and "president". The term "manager" is used more frequently in profit-making organizations, while the others are used more widely in government and non-profit organizations such as universities, hospitals and social work agencies.

So, whom do we call a "manager"?

In its broad meaning, the term "managers" applies to the people who are responsible for making and carrying out decisions within a certain system. A personnel manager directly supervises people in an organization. Financial manager is a person who is responsible for finance. Sales manager is responsible for selling of goods. A marketing manager is responsible for promotion of products on the market.

Almost everything a manager does involves decision-making. When a problem exists a manager has to make a decision to solve it. In decision-making there is always some uncertainty and risk.

Management is a variety of specific activities. Management is a function of planning, organizing, coordinating, directing and controlling. Any managerial system, at any managerial level, is characterized in terms of these general functions.

Managing is a responsible and hard job. There is a lot to be done and relatively little time to do it. In all types of organizations managerial efficiency depends on manager's direct personal relationships, hard work on a variety of activities and preference for active tasks.

The characteristics of management often vary according to national culture, which can determine how managers are trained, how they lead people and how they approach their jobs.

The amount of responsibility of any individual in a company depends on the position that he or she occupies in its hierarchy. Managers, for example, are responsible for leading the people directly under them, who are called subordinates.

To do this successfully, they must use their authority, which is the right to take decisions and give orders. Managers often delegate authority. This means that employees at lower levels in the company hierarchy can use their initiative that is make decisions without asking their manager.

 

Managers

There is a classic definition that "Leaders do the right thing and managers do things right." A more standard definition is usually something like "managers work toward the organization's goals using its resources in an effective and efficient manner." In a traditional sense, large organizations may have different levels of managers, including top managers, middle managers and first-line managers.

Top (or executive) managersare responsible for overseeing the whole organization and typically engage in more strategic and conceptual matters, with less attention to day-to-day detail. Top managers have middle managers working for them and who are in charge of a major function or department. Middle managersmay have first-line managersworking for them and who are responsible to manage the day-to-day activities of a group of workers.

Note that there are different types of managers across the same levels in the organization. A project manageris in charge of developing a certain project, e.g., development of a new building. A functional manageris in charge of a major function, such as a department in the organization, e.g., marketing, sales, engineering, finance, etc. A product manageris in charge of a product or service. Similarly, a product line manager is in charge of a group of closely related products. General managersare in charge of numerous functions within an organization or department.

What Do Managers Do?

There are four major functions of managers; planning, organizing, leading and

coordinating. What managers do is the following:

1) Planning, including identifying goals, objectives, methods, resources needed to carry out methods, responsibilities and dates for completion of tasks. Examples of planning are strategic planning, business planning, project planning, staffing planning, advertising and promotions planning, etc.

2) Organizing resources to achieve the goals in an optimum fashion. Examples are organizing new departments, human resources, office and file systems, re-organizing businesses, etc.

3) Leading, including to set direction for the organization, groups and individuals and also influence people to follow that direction. Examples are establishing strategic direction (vision, values, and goals) and using methods to pursue that direction.

4) Controlling, or coordinating, the organization's systems, processes and structures to reach effectively and efficiently goals and objectives. This includes constant monitoring and adjustment of systems, processes and structures accordingly. Examples include use of financial controls, policies and procedures, performance management processes, measures to avoid risks etc.

 

Training and promotion

In all industrialized countries managers are typically recruited from university or postsecondary technical-school graduates. It is becoming rare for blue-collar workers without a college or technical school degree to rise beyond the level of first-line supervision into the ranks of higher management. As few graduates fresh out of a university or technical school have the experience necessary to assume broad-based or high-level managerial responsibilities, most organizations invest heavily in systematic management training and development efforts.

An initial part of the training involves socialization into the practices, values, and culture of the organization. Another source of training and development lies in the career paths and job rotation policies of the firm. A large multinational firm devised a 10-year management development plan for all its junior managers, assuming that within those 10 years the manager would change jobs at least five times. Each job change was expected to expose the junior manager to a different functional area, such as marketing, finance, technology or product development, and manufacturing and increase the number of people the manager supervised or the level of responsibility. This firm, like an increasing number of others, attempted to include international experience in the career path, especially for those young managers targeted early in their careers as having the potential to rise to the level of senior management.

Researchers have shown that managerial career patterns can be predicted quite accurately by the results of these early promotional outcomes. Some have used the analogy of a tournament to describe the process, in which “losing” at any step along the way significantly reduces one’s chance of “winning” – that is, getting to the top of an organization or profession. Thus, a failure to get a promotion one expects often is a signal for the manager to look for opportunities in another organization.

 

Контрольная работа

Вариант №1

I. Спишите, подчеркните сказуемое. Определите видовременную форму и залог глагола. Переведите предложения на русский язык:

1. He left for Moscow.

2. Dogs bark but do not always bite.

3. New subjects will be studied next term.

4. I shall make coffee for you.

5. The text is being translated at the moment.

6. We have agreed to purchase their machinery.

7. We profited by this transaction.

8. We shall inform you.

9. We are taking the final exams.

II. Запишите предложения в вопросительной и отрицательной форме. Задайте специальный вопрос к выделенным словам:

1. They will discuss their problems tomorrow.

2. This company has already entered the foreign market.

3. I spoke to New York over the telephone yesterday.

4. The taxes rise every three days.

5. They will remember this transaction for ever.

III. Поставьте вместо точек соответствующую форму глагола can или его эквивалента:

1. … you show me that umbrella, please?

2. At the end of the month the post office will send us a bill which we … to pay as you are talking on the phone for hours.

3. When I first went to England I … neither read nor speak English.

4. - … I speak to Mr. Green, please? - He is out at the moment. … you ring back later?

5. Excuse me, how … I get to the nearest supermarket?

IV. Заполните пропуски местоимениями some, any, no, every или их производными:

1. Have you … money on you?

2. Will you give me … water, please?

3. Have you heard … about our plan?

4. There isn’t … there.

5. I have … time to help you today.

What is Economics?

No brief description can offer clear guidance to the content and character of economics, but numerous writers have attempted just that. An especially useless, though once popular, example is: “Economics is what economists do.”

Similarly, a notable economist of the last century Alfred Marshall called economics “a study of mankind in the ordinary business of life”. Another notable Lionel Robbins, in the 1930s, described economics as “the science of choice among scarce means to accomplish unlimited ends.” (This “definition” has considerable currency still, though no one seems to know just what choices, if any, it might exclude from consideration).

During much of modern history, especially in the nineteenth century, economics was called simply “the science of wealth”. Less seriously, George Bernard Shaw was credited in the early 1900s with the witticism that “economics is the science whose practitioners, even if all were laid end to end, would not reach agreement.”

We may make better progress by comparing economics with other subjects. Like every other discipline that attempts to explain observed facts (e.g., physics, astronomy, meteorology), economics comprises a vast collection of descriptive material organized around a central core of theoretical principles. The manner in which theoretical principles are formulated and used in applications varies greatly from one science to another. Like psychology, economics draws much of its theoretical core from intuition, casual observation, and “common knowledge about human nature”. Like astronomy, economics is largely nonexperimental. Like meteorology (also largely nonexperimental), economics is relatively inexact, as is weather forecasting. Like particle physics and molecular biology, economics deals with an extraordinary array of closely interrelated phenomena (as do sociology and social psychology). Like such disciplines as art, fantasy writing, mathematics, metaphysics, cosmology, and the like, economics attracts different people for different reasons: “One person’s meat is another person’s poison.” Though all disciplines differ, all are similar in one aspect: all are meant to convey an interesting, persuative and intellectually satisfying story about selected aspects of experience. As Einstein once put it: “Science is the attempt to make the chaotic diversity of our sense experience corresponded to a logical uniform system of thought.”

 

 

Вариант №2

I. Спишите, подчеркните сказуемое. Определите видовременную форму и залог глагола. Переведите предложения на русский язык:

1. The news will be of great interest.

2. The train leaves at 12.30.

3. I'm working now.

4. Charles Babbage, a professor of mathematics at Cambridge University, invented the first calculating machine at 1812.

5. Do you work at this lab?

6. That machine did complicated calculation faster than any mathematician.

7. The toys are made in Japan.

8. I won’t tell anybody about it.

9. - Have you ever been to Liberia? - Yes, I was there in May.

10. The conference will be held in May.

II. Поставьте предложения в вопросительную и отрицательную форму. К выделенным словам задайте специальные вопросы:

1. They are leaving for Moscow tomorrow.

2. I have already examined the market.

3. They discussed possible pricing yesterday.

4. The train arrives in Moscow at about 19.00.

5. He will enter the Management faculty.

III. Поставьте вместо точек модальные глаголы или их эквиваленты:

1. The buses were full, I … take a taxi.

2. - What were your instructions about phoning, Bill? - I … phone him at 6.00.

3. Tom was often late and his boss told him that he … come earlier.

4. The policeman told the driver that he … drive more carefully.

5. The woman is looking ill. She … see a doctor.

What is Macroeconomics?

The word “macroeconomics” means economics in the large. The macroeconomist’s concerns are with such global questions as total production, total employment, the rate of change of overall prices, the rate of economic growth and so on. The questions asked by the macroeconomist are in terms of broad aggregates - what determines the spending of all consumers as opposed to the microeconomic question of how the spending decisions of individual households are made; what determines the capital spending of all firms combined as opposed to the decision to build a new factory by a single firm; what determines total unemployment in the economy as opposed to why there have been layoffs in a specific industry.

Macroeconomists measure overall economic activity; analyze the determinants of such activity by the use of macroeconomic theory: forecast future economic activity; and attempt to formulate policy responses designed to reconcile forecasts with target values of production, employment and prices.

An important task of macroeconomics is to develop ways of aggregating the values of the economic activities of individuals and firms into meaningful totals. To this end such concepts as gross domestic product (GDP), national income, personal income and personal disposable income have been developed.

Macroeconomic analyses attempts to explain how the magnitudes of the principal macroeconomic variables are determined and how they interact. And through the development of the theories of the business cycle and economic growth, macroeconomics helps to explain the dynamics of how these aggregates move over time.

Macroeconomics is concerned with such major policy issues as the attainment and maintenance of full employment and price stability. Considerable effort must first be expended to determine what goals could be achieved. Experience teaches that it would not be possible to eliminate inflation entirely without inducting a major recession combined with high unemployment. Similarly, an overambitious employment target would produce labour shortages and wage inflation.

 

Вариант №3

I. Спишите, подчеркните сказуемое. Определите видовременную форму и залог глагола. Переведите предложения на русский язык:

1. They were speaking to him.

2. If we take a taxi, we shall be in time there.

3. The text has already been written by them.

4. Long, long ago the people of Egypt made paper from the tall grass that grew on the banks of the river Nile.

5. They will have passed their exams by 3 o’clock.

6. The bag is too heavy. I’ll help you with it.

7. We translated this text.

8. We have done this work.

9. This work must be done at once.

10. The secretary was typing the manager’s report at 10 o’clock yesterday morning.

II. Поставьте предложения в вопросительную и отрицательную форму. К выделенным словам задайте специальные вопросы:

1. The economic situation is getting worse.

2. We have just set up a new firm in Argentina.

3. I changed my money 2 days ago.

4. He was in the office.

5. It takes me ten minutes to go to work.

III. Заполните пропуски словами some, any, every, no или их производными:

1. - Is there … in the room? - No, there is … there.

2. … will tell you the way to the market.

3. - Did you say …? - No, I said ….

4. Give me … to read, please.

5. We have received … information from him.

Вариант №4

I. Спишите, подчеркните сказуемое. Определите видовременную форму и залог глагола. Переведите предложения на русский язык:

1. He studied many subjects.

2. The students had passed the exam by two o’clock yesterday.

3. You are playing chess, aren’t you?

4. I’m sorry I haven’t written before because I’ve been very busy lately.

5. This book was written by our teacher.

6. The students are translating the sentences from English into Russian now.

7. The letter had been written before we came.

8. Who was talking on the telephone at that time?

9. They may take my book.

10. Will you try to enter the university?

II. Запишите предложения в вопросительной и отрицательной форме. Задайте специальный вопрос к выделенным словам:

1. Den studies at the University.

2. I translated many articles every day.

3. He has just spoken to her.

4. We will take our final exams in June.

5. The students were working very well.

III. Поставьте вместо точек модальные глаголы или их эквиваленты:

1. … you translate the text?

2. She will … to answer these letters tomorrow.

3. I … do it.

4. I didn’t want to go there but I … to.

5. Drivers … go at 60 kilometers an hour here.

IV. Заполните пропуски местоимениями some, any, every, no или их производными:

1. I haven’t got … friends in England.

2.... you help me?

3. He showed me … papers.

4. … is ready.

5. … is here.

Helping Foreign Trade

There are some institutions and policies in the world that foster international trade. If these institutions did not exist, many companies would not be able to go international. The U.S. government created the Export-Import Bank (Eximbank) in order to reduce unemployment in the country. Eximbank loans to U.S. exporters and foreign buyers of U.S. imports if private financing is not available. A firm can also buy insurance from the Foreign Credit Insurance Association (FCIA) to cover political risk (such as expropriation and loss due to war). The exporter can also buy insurance coverage on credit sales to foreign customer.

More known are the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (World Bank) and the International Monetary Fund (IMF).

The former fosters the economic development of member nations by making loans to them. The latter eliminates trade barriers and promotes financial cooperation among member countries. Thus, if firms in Argentina wish to buy from American firms but Argentina lacks American dollars, Argentina can borrow USD from IMF. Then it pays the loan back.

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