Ten Lectures by edward newenham hoare

LECTURE I.

In the first place it will be necessary to enumerate the several Latin prepositions, which are used as prefixes, in the composition of English words derived from that language; with a view to explain their meanings in the original, and to point out the way in which they are applied, and what signification they are intended to convey, when used as prefixes in English.

There are twenty-six Latin prepositions thus employed, more or less, in the composition of English words adopted from that language, each of which I proceed to notice and explain.

Ab is frequently thus employed, signifying from, as " abduct," to carry from. It is sometimes found written abs, as in "abstract," to draw from; and sometimes a only, as in " avert," to turn from.

Ad, that is, to, is often changed to ac, where euphony requires it, for example, when preceding the letters c and q, as " accommodate," " acquire;" and sometimes it is at, as in " attract," to draw toward, and as, as in " assist," to stand to, that is, to help; but more usually it remains ad, as in " advent," a coming to.

Ante signifies before, as in the word " antecedent," and is to be distinguished from anti, a Greek preposition signifying against, as " antipathy," a feeling against another.

Bis (or Bi) signifies two, in composition, as " bisect," to cut in two; " biped," a two-footed animal.

Circum is about or around, as "circumspection," looking about one; and sometimes the final letter is dropped, as in " circulate," to carry round.

Contra is against, as " contradict," to speak against, or in opposition to. In some words, especially those that have come to us through the French, this prefix is written counter, as in " countermand," to give an order opposed to the former.

Cum is a Latin preposition signifying with, and in the composition of English words it is changed to Con or CO; as " conduce," to lead with, " cooperate," to work together with.

De signifies down, from, or of; as " descend," to come down, " depart," to part from, " describe," to write of, or concerning.

Dis (or Di) means apart, as " dissever," to part asunder; "diverge," to turn away from. It is also used in a negative sense, as " displease," not to please.

E or Ex, is out of; as " egress," going out of; " exclude," to shut out.

Extra is beyond, as " extraordinary," beyond the common.

In, when prefixed to a verb, has its proper signification, meaning in or into, as " induct," to lead into, and sometimes it is im, as " import," to carry in; but when prefixed to an adjective, it is used negatively, as " infirm," not firm, that is, weak. Before r this preposition is changed to ir, as " irregular;" before I it is il, as " illogical •" and before some other consonants it is changed to im, as " impossible;" and in a few cases it is ig, as " ignoble." In is also frequently changed to un, in English words, as " undutiful;" and it is sometimes en, as " enclosure," " envelope," &c. Many words are uncertainly written with in or en, as " inclose" or " enclose;" and in many cases en is written em, for more easy pronunciation, as in " employ;" but where this is the case, such words have, for the most part, come to us through the French. The prefixes em and en are used augmentatively, and are frequently written im and in; thus we have "embark," or "imbark," " enchant," or " inchant." We have also im or in, as likewise un, used negatively, as " improbable," " inarticulate," " unable." Dr. Richardson remarks that " the latter (the negatives) are never written with e, and that it might be a means of avoiding -uncertainty and confusion, if the augmentatives were always written with e."

Inter is between; as "intervene," to come between.

Intro means to within, as " introduce," which conveys more than to bring in, implying a bringing within to a person or place.

Juxta is nigh to, as "juxta-position," being placed near to.

Ob signifies against, in the way of; as "object," to cast against; " obvious," lying in the way, and hence evident or manifest. This prefix is also used to increase the signification, as " obdure," to harden greatly.

Per, through, is of frequent occurrence, as "pervade," to go through. It also signifies thoroughly; and that which is so accomplished issaid to be "perfect," that is, fully done. We also have it in the sense of by, as " perhaps" or " perchance," that is, by chance. But this will be found in the case of adverbs only, and is more commonly prefixed, in this sense, to words of Anglo-Saxon origin, or to those which have come to us through the French, as " peradventure."

Post is after, and is often found as a prefix to English words derived from Latin, as " postpone," to place after.

Pre, before, is in composition usually written Pre, and is of frequent use, as " precede,'' to go before. To "prevent" also means to go before, and as this may be done with two different objects in view, namely, to hinder another's progress, or to lead one on, so the word may be found used in the two opposite senses; it is, however, restricted to the sense of obstruction in modern writing and speaking. This is one of many instances in which we may find that words have in process of time changed their application or meaning.

Pro is used in composition in English to signify forth, rather than simply from. It implies a going forward, as in " proceed," " progress." This prefix is also used to describe for, meaning in favour of, as we speak of the "pros and cons" in any case; and it is also employed to denote for, in the sense of a substitute, instead of, as a " proconsul".

Re, as a prefix, signifies again or back, as in " return," to turn again, " recall," to call back.

Retro is backwards; hence we have " retrograde," to go backwards, and " retrospect," to look back upon; and others.

Se means aside, as in " seclude," to shut up apart, and " secede," to go aside.

Sub signifies under, beneath; and there are many words with this prefix in English verbs and nouns derived from Latin. Thus we have " subject," to throw under. To " subscribe " means literally to write under, and "subscription" is that which is under-written. These words have come to be commonly applied to giving of alms, and to the sums contributed; but the original meaning of a "subscriber" is one who writes his name beneath, and the " subscription" is that which is so underwritten. In the case of charitable contributions, it means that the persons whose names are given below promise to give the sums for which their names are written beneath. The " Subscribers at Lloyds' " mean the " underwriters" who sign the marine insurance policies.

Subter, of similar signification with sub, is usually applied as a prefix to nouns and adjectives, as " subterfuge," a covert flight, and " subterranean," beneath the earth.

Super, meaning over or above, is used to indicate " superiority," which word itself illustrates the meaning of this prefix. The " superstructure" is that which is built over or upon the foundation; and a " supervisor" is an overlooker.

Trans means across or beyond, from one side to another. A " transfer" of land, of money in the funds, or of any commodity, is the carrying of it from one person to another. To " transport" is to carry one across or beyond the seas; and when a person is said to be "transported" with joy, it means that he is carried away by his feelings beyond all bounds.

There are a few Latin adverbs used as prefixes in English words, which it may be well to notice in this place.

Bene is well, and Male ill. Hence we have "beneficent" and "benevolent," well-doing and well-wishing; and " malevolent," of a bad disposition, or wishing ill; likewise "benediction," a blessing, and " malediction," a curse; meaning speaking well and speaking ill.

Peope is near; whence we have "propinquity."

From Satis, enough, we have "satisfy," "satisfaction;" and "insatiable," that cannot be satisfied.

Sem i is, in composition, half, as " semicircle;" and Demi, of like signification, as " demigod." These two terms are united to describe a very short note in music—a demi-semi quaver.

Simul is at the same time, as in "simultaneous;" and Instanter is at the same moment, whence we have "instantaneously"

Before concluding this Lecture, or entering upon the general subject of Latin-derived words in the English language, I take the opportunity of first calling attention to the circumstance, that all terms relating to Grammar are derived from the Latin.

The names of the several parts of speech are so derived. The Article means a small part or portion, and is of Latin origin. The Noun and theSubstantive are the name and the substance of the thing indicated, both words being from the Latin. The Adjective means that which is thrown or added to the noun, to point out its quality. The Pronoun is used instead of the noun; and the different kinds of pronouns are described by Latin-derived terms; the personal, belonging to the person; relative, relating to; interrogative, asking a question; and demonstrative, pointing out. TheVerb means the word; by which is described the principal word in the sentence. The Adverb is that which is added, not to the "verb" in the grammatical sense, but to the word which it is used to qualify. The Preposition is placed before the noun or pronoun; derived from two Latin words, signifying placed before. The Conjunction is used to connect words, or to conjoin them, as the name imports. Lastly, the Interjection is thrown between the parts of a sentence, to express one's feelings; being compounded of two Latin words, meaning thrown between. Of the interjection, Home Tooke speaks very disparagingly, considering it so far from being properly a " part of speech," that he designates it " the brutish and inarticulate interjection, which has nothing to do with speech, and is only the miserable refuge of the speechless." In proof of this, he insists that " the dominion of speech is founded on the downfall of interjections. Without the artful contrivances of language," he observes, " mankind could have nothing but interjections with which to communicate, orally, any of their feelings." And he proceeds to shew that " voluntary interjections are only employed when the suddenness or vehemence of some affection or passion returns men to their natural state, and makes them, for the moment, forget the use of speech:" while in books they are only to be found in " rhetoric and poetry, in novels, plays, and romances;" and never occur " in books of civil institutions, in history, or in any treatise on useful arts or sciences."

But not only are the several parts of speech derived from the Latin, but all the terms applied to them, in their declension or conjugation, may be traced to the same origin. Thus the Numbers and Genders of nouns and pronouns, as well as those terms themselves, will be found to bederived from this source. The Singular and Plural, as well as the Masculine, Feminine, and Neuter (or neither) are all from Latin. In like manner, with reference to the Cases of nouns and pronouns. The Nominative is that which simply implies the name of the person or thing; the Possessive, as it is commonly called in English, is the case that designates possession. This case in the Latin Grammar is called the Genitive, as, among other relations, signifying one begotten, as, the father of a son, or a son's father; or of one begetting, as, the son of the father, or the father's son. The Dative is, in Latin, the case that signifies the person to whom anything is given, from the verb do, I give. The Accusative, or, in English Grammar, the Objective, signifies the relation of the noun or pronoun on which the action or object implied in the word terminates. The Vocative is the case of calling, from voco, I call, from which we have such words as " vocation," " avocation," &c. The Ablative designates the case which signifies the person or thing from which something is taken away; compounded of ab, from, and latus, the past participle of the irregular verb, fero, I bring or carry. Of the six Latin cases, we have, however, only three in English, namely, the nominative, possessive, and objective.

All the Moods and Tenses of verbs, in English, are likewise of Latin origin. The Indicative is that which expresses simply affirmation or indication, derived from indico, compounded of in and dico, I say. The Subjunctive means that which is joined to or under something else, namely, depending on it; and the mood thus designated, from sub under and junctus joined, is that which expresses the same intention as the indicative, not absolutely, however, but upon some condition, from which it is, in English Grammar, called the Conditional mood, a word also derived from the Latin. TheImperative is used to express a command, from the Latin impero, I command, from whence we have "emperor" and " imperious." The Infinitive is that mood which is expressed without reference to time or person, and neither absolutely or conditionally; the word by which it is designated signifying without limit, from in, used negatively, and finis, the end. The Potential mood, seldom noticed in modern English Grammars, denotes the power or possibility of performing any action, and is expressed by the auxiliaries may or can. It takes its name from the Latin potens, able or powerful.

It is now usual to describe verbs in English as having only two simple tenses, the PRESENT and the PAST, both named from Latin words adopted into the English language. But Murray has several others, as the IMPERFECT, or unfinished, the PERFECT, or completed; the PLUPERFECT, or more fully completed; and the FUTURE, that which is yet to come to pass;—all deriving their names from the Latin. The ACTIVE and PASSIVE voices are likewise named from Latin words adopted into the English language. The same observation applies to the degrees of comparison in adjectives; the POSITIVE,that which is simply set forth, or laid down, frompositus,placed; the COMPARATIVE, that which is compared with another, from compare, or comparare,to compare; and the SUPERLATIVE, that which is carried above or beyond all others, from super, above, and latus, borne or carried.

To the foregoing may be added the four great Divisions (itself a Latin-derived term) of Grammar, which, however, were like the word " grammar" itself originally derived by the Romans from the Greek. Orthography means the correct method of writing, that is, spelling the language, from two Greek words, meaning correct writing. Etymology relates to the true origin and meaning of words, from two Greek words signifying true and a word. Syntax treats of the orderly connection and construction of words in a sentence; derived also from two Greek terms indicating an orderly arrangement. Lastly, Prosody, which treats of the quantity or accent of words, and the proper manner of speaking and reading, and of the different kinds of verse, is so called from two Greek words signifying a song set forth in order; and from the same noun we have an ode, a term by which a piece of poetry is designated.

In my next Lecture I purpose commencing with words compounded of Latin verbs, with one or other of the prepositions which I have adverted to prefixed; after which I shall proceed to words derived from Latin nouns and adjectives.

LECTURE II.