Developments in ducted water current turbines

Российской Федерации

Федеральное государственное бюджетное образовательное учреждение

высшего профессионального образования

Национальный исследовательский ядерный университет «МИФИ»

Волгодонский инженерно-технический институт – филиал НИЯУ МИФИ

 

ИНДИВИДУАЛЬНЫЕ ДОМАШНИЕ ЗАДАНИЯ ПО АНГЛИЙСКОМУ ЯЗЫКУ ДЛЯ СТУДЕНТОВ СОКРАЩЕННОЙ ФОРМЫ ОБУЧЕНИЯ

ПО СПЕЦИАЛЬНОСТИ

«ЭЛЕКТРИЧЕСКИЕ СТАНЦИИ»

I КУРС, II СЕМЕСТР

 

Волгодонск 2012 г.

 

титульный лист ИДЗ

 

Федеральное государственное бюджетное образовательное учреждение

высшего профессионального образования

Национальный исследовательский ядерный университет «МИФИ»

Волгодонский инженерно-технический институт – филиал НИЯУ МИФИ

 

Факультет

Специальность

 

 

Индивидуальное

домашнее задание № 2

 

по дисциплине иностранный (английский) язык

 

Вариант №

 

 

Выполнил студент……………………………………………

курс, группа, фамилия, имя, отчество

 

 

Руководитель…………………………….…………………….

должность, звание, фамилия, имя, отчество

 

 

Волгодонск, 20 г.

ВАРИАНТ №1

1.Прочитайте и переведите тексты:

Recent developments in current flow turbine design

Unlike wind turbine design, which is now a mature technology in which the axial flow propeller type turbine has emerged as the preferred design, water current turbine design is at an early stage of development. Incremental improvements to wind turbine technology since the early 1980s has reduced the cost of grid-connected wind energy by a factor of about 5, to the point where it is now economically competitive with conventional fossil fuels in some areas. This process has not yet happened with water current energy conversion, and subsidies will be needed for research for sometime to come.

The potential contribution of this form of energy is huge: it has been estimated that the UK could obtain 20% of its electricity from tidal currents. Several forms of turbine are being investigated around the world and none has yet emerged as a clear winner. Some of the various forms currently being evaluated are reviewed below.

Axial flow turbines

Marine Current Turbines Ltd in Britain are pioneering the use of axial flow turbines. In 1994 they demonstrated a 10 kW axial flow turbine in Loch Linnhe in Scotland, and they are currently developing a 300 kW turbine for the Severn Estuary off Devon, England. This turbine is expected to resemble one or two conventional wind turbines, mounted on a cantilever tower fixed to the ocean floor. Other small pontoon-mounted axial flow turbines have been built, for example by Teamwork Technology in the Netherlands and by Swenson at the Northern Territory University in Darwin, Australia.

Cross flow turbines

Turbines in which the direction of flow is across the axis of rotation are commonly referred to as “vertical axis” turbines, since their axis is usually vertical. However they are more accurately described as “cross flow” since their distinguishing feature is the fact that the direction of flow is across the axis of rotation, which may be horizontal. Davis conducted laboratory tests on a cross flow water turbine in 1981-2 and constructed a prototype which produced 20 kW electrical power and an estimated 45 kW shaft power in 1983. More recently a 6 m diameter vertical axis turbine has been installed in the Strait of Messina, between Sicily and the Italian mainland. It is expected to produce about 50 kW electrical in a 2.4 m/s current. Gorlov and co-workers in the United States have tested models of a cross-flow turbine with helical blades and claim that its performance is superior to a conventional Darrieus cross flow turbine. Gorlov has proposed large helical blade turbines to convert energy from the Gulf Stream

Open and ducted turbines

Like conventional hydropower turbines, installations such as the Rance River in France utilise the pressure difference created by a static head, i.e. the potential energy inherent in a difference in water surface elevation. In contrast, wind turbines and open water current turbines utilise the kinetic energy of a moving fluid directly. Between these extremes, Darrieus proposed placing turbines in ducts to augment the power extracted from a given sized turbine.

Blue Energy Canada has proposed two variants on this theme: a single turbine can be placed in aduct in open flow without obstructing the free flow of water around the installation, or alternatively their proposed “tidal fence” forces all of the flow to pass through the turbines. They have proposed an ambitious scheme to build a tidal fence across a strait and use a large number of vertical axis turbines to produce up to 2200 MW. Recently other organizations have also been investigating this concept.

 

2.Переведите на русский язык следующие английские сочетания:

1)pressure difference

2)intermittentflow

3)tidal basins

4)peak periods

5)wind turbine

6)disruption to ecosystems

7)negligible rise and fall

8)conventional fossil fuels

9)axialflowturbines

10)axis of rotation

 

3.Найдите в тексте английские эквиваленты следующих словосочетаний:

1)традиционные методы

2)статический напор

3)односторонний поток

4)кинетическая энергия

5)речные потоки

6)приливный подъем и падение

7)силы сопротивления

8)оффшорные нефтяные платформы

9)дно океана

10)турбины поперечного потока

 

4.Найдите в тексте слова, имеющие общий корень с данными словами. Определите, к какой части речи они относятся, и переведите их на русский язык:

1)creation

2)possible

3)nature

4)eligible

5)grow

6)unknown

7)underdeveloped

8)technique

9)competition

10)view

 

5.Задайте к выделенному в тексте предложению все типы вопросов (общий, альтернативный, разделительный, специальный: а) к подлежащему, б) к второстепенному члену предложения.

 

6.Выполните анализ данных предложений, обратив внимание на следующие грамматические явления: формы и функции причастия, независимый причастный оборот, формы и функции герундия, герундиальный оборот, инфинитивные конструкции (сложное дополнение, сложное подлежащее), существительное в роли определения, функции слов one (ones), that (those), условные предложения (сослагательное наклонение 1 и 2 типов):

1. A steady one-way flow could then be maintained through turbines in conduits connecting the estuaries.

2. Wind turbines and open water current turbines are known to utilise the kinetic energy of a moving fluid directly.

3. There is no need for a large tidal rise and fall – for example the Messina strait between Sicily and Italian mainland has 2.4 m/s currents with negligible rise and fall.

4. Unlike wind turbine design, which is now a mature technology in which the axial flow propeller type turbine has emerged as the preferred design, water current turbine design is at an early stage of development.

5. Everybody expected Gorlov and co-workers in the United States to have tested models of a cross-flow turbine with helical blades and claim that its performance was superior to a conventional Darrieus cross flow turbine.

 

7. Ответьте на вопросы по тексту:

1. How many methods of extracting energy from tidal flows are there?

2. More efficient turbines can be used for one-way flow, can’t they?

3. What is the less well-known method?

4. Innumerate some potential problems with tidal or marine current turbines.

5. Should these possible problems be insurmountable?

6. Who is pioneering the use of axial flow turbines?

7. How can you describe cross flow turbines?

 

ВАРИАНТ № 2

1. Прочитайте и переведите тексты:

Wind power

 

Wind power is the conversion of wind energy into a useful form of energy, such as using wind turbines to make electricity, wind mills for mechanical power, wind pumps for pumping water or drainage, or sails to propel ships.

At the end of 2009, worldwide nameplate capacity of wind-powered generators was 159.2 gigawatts (GW). Energy production was 340 TWh, which is about 2% of worldwide electricity usage and has doubled in the past three years. Large-scale wind farms are connected to the electric power transmission network; smaller facilities are used to provide electricity to isolated locations.

Wind power is non-dispatchable, meaning that for economic operation, all of the available output must be taken when it is available. Other resources, such as hydropower, and load management techniques must be used to match supply with demand. The intermittency of wind seldom creates problems when using wind power to supply a low proportion of total demand, but as the proportion rises, problems are created such as increased costs, the need to upgrade the grid, and a lowered ability to supplant conventional production. Power management techniques such as exporting excess power to neighboring areas or reducing demand when wind production is low, can mitigate these problems.

The Earth is unevenly heated by the sun, such that the poles receive less energy from the sun than the equator; along with this, dry land heats up (and cools down) more quickly than the seas do. The differential heating drives a global atmospheric convection system reaching from the Earth's surface to the stratosphere which acts as a virtual ceiling. Most of the energy stored in these wind movements can be found at high altitudes where continuous wind speeds of over 160 km/h (99 mph) occur. Eventually, the wind energy is converted through friction into diffuse heat throughout the Earth's surface and the atmosphere.

The total amount of economically extractable power available from the wind is considerably more than present human power use from all sources. The strength of wind varies, and an average value for a given location does not alone indicate the amount of energy a wind turbine could produce there. To assess the frequency of wind speeds at a particular location, a probability distribution function is often fit to the observed data. Different locations will have different wind speed distributions.

Electricity generatio

In a wind farm, individual turbines are interconnected with a medium voltage (often 34.5 kV), power collection system and communications network. At a substation, this medium-voltage electric current is increased in voltage with a transformer for connection to the high voltage electric power transmission system.

The surplus power produced by domestic microgenerators can, in some jurisdictions, be fed into the network and sold to the utility company, producing a retail credit for the microgenerators' owners to offset their energy costs.

Since wind speed is not constant, a wind farm's annual energy production is never as much as the sum of the generator nameplate ratings multiplied by the total hours in a year. The ratio of actual productivity in a year to this theoretical maximum is called the capacity factor. Typical capacity factors are 20–40%, with values at the upper end of the range in particularly favourable sites.

Unlike fueled generating plants, the capacity factor is limited by the inherent properties of wind. Capacity factors of other types of power plant are based mostly on fuel cost, with a small amount of downtime for maintenance. Nuclear plants have low incremental fuel cost, and so are run at full output and achieve a 90% capacity factor. Plants with higher fuel cost are throttled back to follow load. Gas turbine plants usingnatural gas as fuel may be very expensive to operate and may be run only to meet peak power demand. A gas turbine plant may have an annual capacity factor of 5–25% due to relatively high energy production cost.

Penetration

Wind energy "penetration" refers to the fraction of energy produced by wind compared with the total available generation capacity. There is no generally accepted "maximum" level of wind penetration. The limit for a particular grid will depend on the existing generating plants, pricing mechanisms, capacity for storage or demand management, and other factors. An interconnected electricity grid will already include reserve generating and transmission capacity to allow for equipment failures; this reserve capacity can also serve to regulate for the varying power generation by wind plants. Studies have indicated that 20% of the total electrical energy consumption may be incorporated with minimal difficulty. These studies have been for locations with geographically dispersed wind farms, some degree of dispatchable energy, or hydropower with storage capacity, demand management, and interconnection to a large grid area export of electricity when needed. Beyond this level, there are few technical limits, but the economic implications become more significant. Electrical utilities continue to study the effects of large (20% or more) scale penetration of wind generation on system stability and economics.

At present, a few grid systems have penetration of wind energy above 5%: Denmark (values over 19%), Spain and Portugal (values over 11%), Germany and the Republic of Ireland (values over 6%). But even with a modest level of penetration, there can be times where wind power provides a substantial percentage of the power on a grid.

There are now many thousands of wind turbines operating, with a total nameplate capacity of 157,899 MW of which wind power in Europe accounts for 48% (2009). The World Wind Energy Association forecast that, by 2010, over 200 GW of capacity would have been installed worldwide, up from 73.9 GW at the end of 2006, implying an anticipated net growth rate of more than 28% per year.

Wind accounts for nearly one-fifth of electricity generated in Denmark — the highest percentage of any country — and it is tenth in the world in total wind power generation. Denmark is prominent in the manufacturing and use of wind turbines, with a commitment made in the 1970s to eventually produce half of the country's power by wind.

In recent years, the US has added substantial amounts of wind power generation capacity, growing from just over 6 GW at the end of 2004 to over 35 GW at the end of 2009.The U.S. is currently the world's leader in wind power generation capacity.

Unfortunately, wind power hasn’t found much use in our country and the situation leaves much to be desired, but still there is much hope that everything will change for the better soon.

 

2. Переведите на русский язык следующие английские сочетания:

1. wind mills

2. load management techniques

3. extractable power

4. wind turbine

5. observed data

6. high voltage electric power transmission system

7. to offset energy costs

8. peak power demand

9. electricity grid

10. an anticipated net growth rate

 

3. Найдите в тексте английские эквиваленты следующих словосочетаний:

1)ветряные насосы

2)гидроэлектроэнергия

3)методы управления нагрузкой

4)земная поверхность

5)излишки электроэнергии

6)компенсировать затраты на энергию

7)годовое производство энергии

80коэффициент использования установленной мощности

9)электрические коммунальные сети

10)пик спроса на электроэнергию

 

4.Найдите в тексте слова, имеющие общий корень с данными словами. Определите, к какой части речи они относятся, и переведите их на русский язык:

Connection, continue, moving, economy, extract, indication, favourite, penetrate, regular, imply.

 

5.Задайте к выделенному в тексте предложению все типы вопросов (общий, альтернативный, разделительный, специальный: а) к подлежащему, б) к второстепенному члену предложения.

6.Выполните анализ данных предложений, обратив внимание на следующие грамматические явления: формы и функции причастия, независимый причастный оборот, формы и функции герундия, герундиальный оборот, инфинитивные конструкции (сложное дополнение, сложное подлежащее), существительное в роли определения, функции слов one (ones), that (those), условные предложения (сослагательное наклонение 1 и 2 типов):

 

1. Large-scale wind farms are connected to the electric power transmission network; smaller facilities are used to provide electricity to isolated locations.

2.If wind speed were not constant, a wind farm's annual energy production would be never as much as the sum of the generator nameplate ratings multiplied by the total hours in a year.

3.There is no generally accepted "maximum" level of wind penetration.

4.Power management techniques such as exporting excess power to neighboring areas or reducing demand when wind production is low, can mitigate these problems.

5.Scientists expected 20% of the total electrical energy consumption to be incorporated with minimal difficulty.

 

7.Ответьте на вопросы по тексту:

1. What is wind power?

2. Energy production was 340 TWh and has doubled in the past three years, hasn’t it?

3. How is the wind power formed?

4. How is the electricity generated?

5. What are the advantages of the wind farms?

6. What are the benefits of the wind power to the nuclear energy?

7. Where is the wind power generated mostly?

 

ВАРИАНТ №3

1.Прочитайте и переведите текст:

Atommash

Today fossil-fuel power plants account for the bulk of world electric energy production. Fossil-fuel supplies, however, are limited and these resources could be found in some other applications. Alternative sources of electric supply, such as solar energy, wind power, are rather questionable and their technology is a matter of future. While the consumption of the electric energy steadily rises.

The nuclear power industry helps with this problem. The Soviet Union pioneered in the nuclear power technology and the first nuclear power plant was built in the town of Obninsk in 1954.The outstanding contribution to the development of the nuclear power engineering was made by I.V. Kurchatov.

Since that time continuous efforts are being made to improve the nuclear power technology and to develop new most promising types of equipment. The Russian Federation has accumulated a vast wealth of experience in the manufacture of equipment for nuclear power plants. The most advanced facility manufacturing the brand new equipment for nuclear power stations is “Atommash” in the town of Volgodonsk.

“Atommash” was founded in 1976 as an enterprise specialized in production of equipment for nuclear power plants in Russia and abroad. After introducing and developing market relations in Russia “Atommash” works has been diversifying.

The optimum application of production facilities makes it possible master production output of equipment for metallurgy, petroleum and gas-refining industries, construction industry and agriculture. Equipment manufactured at “Atommash” works is used at enterprises of different industries all over the world. The wide spectrum of transport communications enables this plant to make shipment to clients located in various regions of the country and abroad.

Production potentials of the enterprise are determined by unique metal cutting, forming, heat-treatment, welding equipment. Enterprise laboratories are fitted out with equipment of foreign and domestic firms which are leaders in the field of non-destructive and other laboratory controls. Carnage of the enterprise has lifted capacity up to 1200 tons in the production shops and at the port.

The main products of the Works are power reactors, steam generators, refueling machines, pressurizes, tanks for emergency cooling systems, biological protection systems. The range of equipment produced by “Atommash” for NPP includes 125 items.

Six factory blocks occupy the area of 1,000,000 sq. m. the work is divided into manufacturing units. Manufacturing Division 1 embraces about 20 workshops and is responsible for the manufacture of reactor vessels, steam generators and other handling equipment.

On August 15, 1978 the first cut was made on the barrel of the first reactor vessel and in February 1981 its fabrication was completed. On December 17, 1978 manufacturing facilities were commissioned which were capable of turning out reactor equipment for 3 million kW annually. Nowadays the Amalgamation is capable of producing reactor equipment for 5 million kW annually.

“Atommash” is outfitted with most up-to-date manufacturing equipment representing the state-of-the-art in the machine-building industry. The unique machine tools, heat treating furnaces, a hardening complex are run by specially-trained operators who were granted permit to work on the equipment for nuclear power industry. One of the basic requirements to these products is high quality and service reliability.

The high quality of the products for nuclear power industry is ensured by a multi-level quality control which is provided by various laboratories from the Quality Assurance Department. Diversified methods of quality control are used at “Atommash” – ultrasonic inspection, X-ray tests, magnetic particle inspection, etc.

Engineers, executives officers of various services have developed some interesting innovatory features. Among them are: automatic welding of Y-shapes branches to steam generators, forming of weldless bottom covers for reactors. All these operations have found first application at “Atommash”. At present the “Atommash” staff are engaged in the development of a novel piece of equipment, viz. fast reactor BN-800.

“Atommash” maintains wide and diversified contacts with the scientific community. Directly involved in the “Atommash” activities are several scientific research and design institutes. Long-standing and close links are maintained by “Atommash” with the world-renowned Paton Welding Institute. And it is quite natural because welding accounts for 40 percent in the overall volume of work on manufacture of the equipment for nuclear power stations.

The “Atommash” products are delivered to many nuclear power projects in the Russian Federation (in Rostov, Novovoronezh, Moscow) as well as to the projects being built in different countries.

 

2.Переведите на русский язык следующие английские сочетания:

1. gas-refining industries

2. manufacturing units

3. reactor vessels

4. state-of-the-art

5. heat treating furnaces

6. ultrasonic inspection

7. weldless bottom

8. long-standing

9. fossil-fuel power plants

10. alternative sources of electric supply

 

3.Найдите в тексте английские эквиваленты следующих словосочетаний:

1. оптимальное применение

2. парогенераторы

3. производственные единицы

4. подъемно-транспортное оборудование

5. современное состояние

6. многоступенчатый контроль

7. магнитопорошковая проверка

8. автоматическая приварка «косых» патрубков

9. энергия ветра

10. нефтеперерабатывающая промышленность

 

4.Найдите в тексте слова, имеющие общий корень с данными словами. Определите, к какой части речи они относятся, и переведите их на русский язык:

Capable, equipped, location, press, division, turnover, reliable, sure, operator, applicant.

 

5.Задайте к выделенному в тексте предложению все типы вопросов (общий, альтернативный, разделительный, специальный: а) к подлежащему, б) к второстепенному члену предложения.

6.Выполните анализ данных предложений, обратив внимание на следующие грамматические явления: формы и функции причастия, независимый причастный оборот, формы и функции герундия, герундиальный оборот, инфинитивные конструкции (сложное дополнение, сложное подлежащее), существительное в роли определения, функции слов one (ones), that (those), условные предложения (сослагательное наклонение 1 и 2 типов:

1. Everybody expected “Atommash” works to have been diversifying after introducing and developing market relations in Russia.

2. Equipment manufactured at “Atommash” works is used at enterprises of different industries all over the world.

3. “Atommash” is outfitted with most up-to-date manufacturing equipment representing the state-of-the-art in the machine-building industry.

4. Diversified methods of quality control are used at “Atommash” – ultrasonic inspection, X-ray tests, magnetic particle inspection.

5. “Atommash” is announced to maintain wide and diversified contacts with the scientific community.

 

7.Ответьте на вопросы по тексту:

1. Where and when was the first nuclear power plant built?

2. Who made a great contribution into the development of NPPs?

3. How many items does “Atommash” produce?

4. What does Manufacturing Division 1 consist of?

5. How much reactor equipment does the plant produce annually?

6. What types of quality control are used at “Atommash”?

7. What have the engineers of the plant developed recently?

 

ВАРИАНТ 4

1.Прочитайте и переведитетекст:

Max Planck

Max Planck made many contributions to theoretical physics, but his fame restsprimarily on his role as originator of the quantum theory. This theory revolutionized our understanding of atomic and subatomic processes, just as Albert Einstein’s theory of relativity revolutionized our understanding of space and time.

Max Karl Ernst Ludwig Planck was the sixth child of a distinguished jurist and professor of law at the University of Kiel. When Planck was nine years old, his father received an appointment at the University of Munich, and Planck entered the city’s renowned Maximilian Gymnasium, where a teacher, Hermann Müller, stimulated his interest in physics and mathematics.

Planck deliberately decided to become a theoretical physicist at a time when theoretical physics was not yet recognized as a discipline in its own right. The first instance of an absolute in nature that impressed Planck deeply, even as a Gymnasium student, was the law of the conservation of energy, the first law of thermodynamics. Later, during his university years, he became equally convinced that the entropy law, the second law of thermodynamics, was also an absolute law of nature. The second law became the subject of his doctoral dissertation at Munich, and it lay at the core of the researches that led him to discover the quantum of action, now known as Planck’s constant h, in 1900.

In 1859–60 Kirchhoff had defined a blackbody as an object that reemits all of the radiant energy incident upon it; i.e., it is a perfect emitter and absorber of radiation. There was, therefore, something absolute about blackbody radiation, and by the 1890s various experimental and theoretical attempts had been made to determine its spectral energy distribution—the curve displaying how much radiant energy is emitted at different frequencies for a given temperature of the blackbody. Planck was particularly attracted to the formula found in 1896 by his colleague Wilhelm Wien, and he subsequently made a series of attempts to derive “Wien’s law” on the basis of the second law of thermodynamics. By October 1900, however, the experimentalists Otto Richard Lummer, Ernst Pringsheim, Heinrich Rubens, and Ferdinand Kurlbaum, had found definite indications that Wien’s law, while valid at high frequencies, broke down completely at low frequencies.

Planck learned of these results just before a meeting of the German Physical Society on October 19. He knew how the entropy of the radiation had to depend mathematically upon its energy in the high-frequency region if Wien’s law held there. He also saw what this dependence had to be in the low-frequency region in order to reproduce the experimental results there. Planck guessed, therefore, that he should try to combine these two expressions in the simplest way possible, and to transform the result into a formula relating the energy of the radiation to its frequency.

The result, which is known as Planck’s radiation law, was hailed as indisputably correct. That was the task to which Planck immediately directed his energies, and by December 14, 1900, he had succeeded—but at great cost. To achieve his goal, Planck found that he had to relinquish one of his own most cherished beliefs, that the second law of thermodynamics was an absolute law of nature. Instead he had to embrace Ludwig Boltzmann’s interpretation, that the second law was a statistical law. In addition, Planck had to assume that the oscillators comprising the blackbody and re-emitting the radiant energy incident upon them could not absorb this energy continuously but only in discrete amounts, in quanta of energy; only by statistically distributing these quanta, each containing an amount of energy h ν proportional to its frequency, over all of the oscillators present in the blackbody could Planck derive the formula he had hit upon two months earlier. He adduced additional evidence for the importance of his formula by using it to evaluate the constant h as well as the so-called Boltzmann constant, Avogadro’s number, and the charge of the electron. As time went on physicists recognized ever more clearly that—because Planck’s constant was not zero but had a small but finite value—the microphysical world, the world of atomic dimensions, could not in principle be described by ordinary classical mechanics. A profound revolution in physical theory was in the making.

Planck’s concept of energy quanta, in other words, conflicted fundamentally with all past physical theory. In 1905, independently of Planck’s work, Einstein argued that under certain circumstances radiant energy itself seemed to consist of quanta (light quanta, later called photons), and in 1907 he showed the generality of the quantum hypothesis by using it to interpret the temperature dependence of the specific heats of solids. In 1909 Einstein introduced the wave–particle duality into physics. In October 1911 he was among the group of prominent physicists who attended the first Solvay conference in Brussels. The discussions there stimulated Henri Poincare to provide a mathematical proof that Planck’s radiation law necessarily required the introduction of quanta.

Planck was 42 years old in 1900 when he made the famous discovery that in 1918 won him the Nobel Prize for Physics and that brought him many other honours. It is not surprising that he subsequently made no discoveries of comparable importance. Nevertheless, he continued to contribute at a high level to various branches of optics, thermodynamics and statistical mechanics, physical chemistry, and other fields.

In his later years, Planck devoted more and more of his writings to philosophical, aesthetic, and religious questions. Together with Einstein and Schrödinger, he remained adamantly opposed to the indeterministic, statistical worldview introduced by Bohr, Max Born, Werner Heisenberg, and others into physics after the advent of quantum mechanics in 1925–26. Such a view was not in harmony with Planck’s deepest intuitions and beliefs. Planck became permanent secretary of the mathematics and physics sections of the Prussian Academy of Sciences in 1912 and held that position until 1938; he was also president of the Kaiser Wilhelm Society (now the Max Planck Society) from 1930 to 1937. These offices and others placed Planck in a position of great authority, especially among German physicists; seldom were his decisions or advice questioned. His authority, however, stemmed fundamentally not from the official appointments he held but from his personal moral force. His fairness, integrity, and wisdom were beyond question. It was completely in character that Planck went directly to Hitler in an attempt to reverse Hitler’s devastating racial policies and that he chose to remain in Germany during the Nazi period to try to preserve what he could of German physics.

 

2.Переведите на русский язык следующие английские сочетания:

1)quantum theory

2)conservation of energy

3)quantum of action

4)in quanta of energy

5)emitter and absorber of radiation

6)Boltzmann constant

7)wave–particle duality

8)comparable importance

9)indeterministic

10)moral force

 

3.Найдите в тексте английские эквиваленты следующих словосочетаний:

1. субатомные процессы

2. слава в основном лежит

3. в равной степени убежден

4. первый закон термодинамики

5. докторская диссертация

6. излучение абсолютно черного тела

7. энергия излучения

8. спектральное распределение энергии

9. заряд электрона

10. корпускулярно-волновой дуализм

 

4. Найдите в тексте слова, имеющие общий корень с данными словами. Определите, к какой части речи они относятся, и переведите их на русский язык:

Prerevolutionary, recognition, conservative, emition, indicator, depend, never, compared, worldwide, appoint.

 

5.Задайте к выделенному в тексте предложению все типы вопросов (общий, альтернативный, разделительный, специальный: а) к подлежащему, б) к второстепенному члену предложения

6.Выполните анализ данных предложений, обратив внимание на следующие грамматические явления: формы и функции причастия, независимый причастный оборот, формы и функции герундия, герундиальный оборот, инфинитивные конструкции (сложное дополнение, сложное подлежащее), существительное в роли определения, функции слов one (ones), that (those), условные предложения (сослагательное наклонение 1 и 2 типов):

 

1.If Planck were attracted to the formula found in 1896 by his colleague Wilhelm Wien he would make a series of attempts to derive “Wien’s law” on the basis of the second law of thermodynamics.

2.Planck guessed, therefore, that he should try to combine these two expressions in the simplest way possible, and to transform the result into a formula relating the energy of the radiation to its frequency.

3.He adduced additional evidence for the importance of his formula by using it to evaluate the constant h as well as the so-called Boltzmann constant, Avogadro’s number, and the charge of the electron.

4.He knew the entropy of the radiation to have to depend mathematically upon its energy in the high-frequency region if Wien’s law held there.

5.In 1905, independently of Planck’s work, Einstein argued that under certain circumstances radiant energy itself seemed to consist of quanta (light quanta, later called photons), and in 1907 he showed the generality of the quantum hypothesis by using it to interpret the temperature dependence of the specific heats of solids.

 

7.Ответьте на вопросы по тексту:

1.What is the main theory of Max Planck?

2.What is so remarkable in Planck’s decision to become a physicist?

3.When did Planck discover the constant h?

4.Why had numerous experiments been made about blackbody radiation?

5.How could Planck combine two expressions of Wien’s law?

6.What did he find out when he formulated the radiation law?

7.Did Planck win the Nobel Prize?

 

ВАРИАНТ №5

1.Прочитайте и переведите текст:

Three Mile Island

On an island 10 miles from Harrisburg Pennsylvania resides the Three Mile Island Nuclear Power Station. There are two reactors at the plant, dubbed Unit 1 and Unit 2. One of them is inoperable. Unit 2 experienced a partial reactor meltdown on March 28, 1979. A partial nuclear meltdown is when the uranium fuel rods start to liquefy, but they do not fall through the reactor floor and breach the containment systems. The accident which occurred at Unit 2 is considered to be the worst nuclear disaster in US history. Why did it happen? There are many reasons for the accident, but the two main ones are simple human error and the failure of a rather minor valve in the reactor. In the following paragraphs, we will explain how it was possible for the accident to happen and both its psychological and physical effects on the American people.

The accident at TMI (Three Mile Island) began at about four in the morning with the failure of one of the valves that controlled coolant flow into the reactor. Because of this, the amount of cool water entering the reactor decreased, and the core temperature rose. When this happened, automatic computerized systems engaged, and the reactor was automatically scrammed. The nuclear chain reaction then stopped. This only slowed the rate at which the core temperature was increasing, however. The temperature was still rising because of residual heat in the reactor and energy released from the decaying fission products in the fuel rods.

Because the pumps removing water from the core were still active, and a valve that controlled the cool water entering the core failed, water was leaving the core, but not coming in. This reduced the amount of coolant in the core. There wasn't enough coolant in the core, so the Emergency Core Cooling System automatically turned on. This should have provided enough extra coolant to make up for the stuck valve, except that the reactor operator, thinking that enough coolant was already in the core, shut it off too early.

There still wasn't enough coolant, so the core's temperature kept increasing. A valve at the top of the core automatically opened to vent some of the steam in the core. This should have helped matters by removing the hot steam, but the valve didn't close properly. Because it didn't close, steam continued to vent from the reactor, further reducing the coolant level. The reactor operators should have known the valve didn't close, but the indicator in the control room was covered by a maintenance tag attached to a nearby switch. Because the operators didn't know that the valve had failed to close, they assumed that the situation was under control, as the core temperature had stopped rising with the first venting of steam from the core. They also thought that the coolant had been replaced in the core, because they didn't know that the pump outlets were closed. A few minutes later the core temperature began to rise again, and the Emergency Core Cooling System automatically switched on. Once again, an operator de-activated it, thinking the situation was under control. In reality, it was not.

Soon, because of the coolant lost through the open valve at the top of the reactor, the core temperature began to rise again. At this point the fuel rods started to collapse from the intense heat inside the core. The operators knew something was wrong, but didn't understand what it was. This was about 5 minutes after the initial valve failure. It took almost 2 hours for someone to figure out that the valve releasing steam at the top of reactor hadn't closed properly. During those 2 hours, precious coolant continued to be released from the reactor a meltdown was underway. At approximately 6AM, an operator discovered the valve at the top of the core was open and closed it.

During the day hydrogen gas began to accumulate inside the reactor and caused an explosion later in the afternoon. This explosion did not damage the containment systems, however. Two days later, the core was still not under operator control. A group of nuclear experts were asked to help evaluate the situation. They figured out that a lot of hydrogen gas had accumulated at the top of the core. This gas could have exploded, like the explosion on the first day of the accident, or it could have displaced the remaining coolant in the reactor, causing a complete nuclear reactor meltdown. No one really knew what to do about the hydrogen build-up. A hydrogen recombiner was used to remove some of the hydrogen, but it was not very effective. However, hydrogen also dissolves in water, which is what the coolant was composed of. Thus, over time the hydrogen that had collected at the top of the core completely dissolved in the coolant. Two weeks later the reactor was brought to a cold shutdown and the accident was over.

No one was directly injured as a result of the accident. However, some radioactive gas and water were vented to the environment around the reactor. At one point, radioactive water was released into the Susquehanna river, which is a source of drinking water for nearby communities. No one is really sure what effects these radioactive releases might have had on people living near the power plant.

 

2.Переведите на русский язык следующие английские сочетания:

1. nuclear accidents

2. atomic bomb

3. uranium fuel

4. fission products

5. containment systems

6. decaying fission products

7. hydrogen gas

8. nuclear reactor meltdown

9. nearby communities

10. coolant level

 

3.Найдите в тексте английские эквиваленты следующих словосочетаний:

1)источник питьевой воды

2)человеческая ошибка

3)атомный реактор

4)расплавление

5)топливные стержни

6)охладительные системы

7)радиоактивный мусор

8)грунтовые воды

9)количество охладителя

10)полное расплавление ядерного реактора

 

4.Найдите в тексте слова, имеющие общий корень с данными словами. Определите, к какой части речи они относятся, и переведите их на русский язык:

Liquid, movement, reassure, cooler, initiate, productive, entrance, wonder, explosion, continuation.

 

5.Задайте к выделенному в тексте предложению все типы вопросов (общий, альтернативный, разделительный, специальный: а) к подлежащему, б) к второстепенному члену предложения.

6.Выполните анализ данных предложений, обратив внимание на следующие грамматические явления: формы и функции причастия, независимый причастный оборот, формы и функции герундия, герундиальный оборот, инфинитивные конструкции (сложное дополнение, сложное подлежащее), существительное в роли определения, функции слов one (ones), that (those), условные предложения (сослагательное наклонение 1 и 2 типов):

1.This gas could have exploded, like the explosion on the first day of the accident, or it could have displaced the remaining coolant in the reactor, causing a complete nuclear reactor meltdown.

2.So, if it can't explode, what does happen in a nuclear reactor?

3.If the core continued to heat, the reactor would get so hot that the steel walls of the core would also melt.

4. In general a nuclear meltdown would occur if the reactor loses its coolant.

5.The molten uranium would react with groundwater, producing large explosions of radioactive steam and debris that would affect nearby towns and population centers.

 

7.Ответьте на вопросы по тексту:

1.What are the most famous nuclear accidents?

2. What is a meltdown?

3. What produces large explosions of radioactive steam and debris?

4. The residual heat and the heat produced from the decay of the fission products are enough to drive the core's temperature up, aren’t they?

5. When did the accident at Three Mile Island occur?

6. What was the reason of the accident?

7. How did a group of nuclear experts help?

 

ВАРИАНТ №6

1. Прочитайте и переведите текст:

Chernobyl

About 130 km north of Kiev is located the Chernobyl nuclear power plant. At this plant the worstreactor disaster to ever occur took place on April 26, 1986. It happened largely because normal reactor operations were suspended; an experiment was to take place in the reactor. As a result, normal safety guidelines were disregarded, and the accident occurred. However, as with most accidents of this type, it was a result of many small mistakes adding up to create a catastrophe.

Early in the day, before the test, the power output of the reactor was dropped in preparation for the upcoming test. Unexpectedly, the reactor's power output dropped way too much, almost to zero. Because of this drop, some control rods were removed to bring the power back up.

More preparation for the test began later when two pumps were switched on in the cooling system. They increased water flow out of the reactor, and thus removed heat more quickly. They also caused the water level to lower in a component of the reactor called the steam separator. Because of the low level of water in the steam separator, the operator increased the amount of feed water coming into it, in the hopes that the water level would rise. Also, more control rods were taken out of the reactor to raise internal reactor temperature and pressure, also in the hopes that it would cause the water level in the steam separator to rise. The water level in the steam separator began to rise, so the operator adjusted again the flow of feed water by lowering it. This decreased the amount of heat being removed from the reactor core.

Because many control rods had been removed and the amount of heat being taken from the core by the coolant had been reduced, it began to get very hot. Also, there was relatively low pressure in the core because the amount of incoming water had been decreased. Because of the heat and the low pressure, coolant inside the core began to boil to form steam.

The actual test began with the closing of the turbine feed valves. This should have caused an increase in pressure in the cooling system, which in turn would have caused a decrease in steam in the core. This should have lowered the reactivity in the core. Thus, the normal next step when closing the turbine feed valves was to retract more control rods, increasing reactivity in the core. This is what the operator at Chernobyl did. The only problem was that in this case there was no increase in pressure in the cooling system because of the earlier feed water reduction. This meant that there was already a normal amount of steam in the core, even with the turbine feed valves closed. Thus, by retracting more control rods to make up for a reduction in steam that didn't happen, the operator caused too much steam to be produced in the core.

With the surplus of steam, the reactor's power output increased. Soon, even more steam was being produced. The operator realized there was a problem and scrammed the reactor, completely disabling all fission reactions. However, it was too late. The temperature and pressure inside the reactor had already risen dramatically, and the fuel rods had begun to shatter.

After the fuel rods shattered, two explosions occurred as a result of liquid uranium reacting with steam and from fuel vapor expansion. The reactor containment was broken, and the top of the reactor lifted off. With the containment broken, outside air began to enter the reactor. As air entered the core, it reacted with the graphite. The fire emitted extremely radioactive smoke into the area surrounding the reactor. Additionally, the explosion ejected a portion of the reactor fuel into the surrounding atmosphere and countryside. This fuel contained both fission products and transuranic wastes.

During the days following the accident, hundreds of people worked to quell the reactor fire and the escape of radioactive materials. Liquid nitrogen was pumped into the reactor core to cool it down. Helicopters dumped neutron-absorbing materials into the exposed core to prevent it from going critical. After the fires were brought under control, construction of what is called "the sarcophagus" began. It was designed to contain the radioactive waste inside. It has served its purpose well, but, now, ten years after the accident, several flaws have been found in it. Holes have begun to appear in the roof, allowing rainwater to accumulate inside. This water can corrode the structure, further weakening it. Also, birds and other animals have been seen making homes in the sarcophagus. If they should ingest radioactive material, they could spread it around the countryside. Additionally, with time the sarcophagus has become worn down. It is conceivable that an intense event like an earthquake, tornado, or plane crash directly on the sarcophagus could lead to its collapse. This would be catastrophic, as radioactive dust would once again rain down on the surrounding areas. Scientists and engineers are working on ways to repair or replace the structure.

What caused the accident? This is a very hard question to answer. The obvious one is operator error. The operator was not very familiar with the reactor and hadn't been trained enough. Additionally, when the accident occurred, normal safety rules were not being followed because they were running a test. For example, regulations required that at least 15 control rods always remain in the reactor. When the explosion occurred, less than 10 were present. This happened because many of the rods were removed to raise power output. This was one of the direct causes of the accident. Also, the reactor itself was not designed well and was prone to abrupt and massive power surges.

 

2. Переведите на русский язык следующие английские сочетания:

1) safety guidelines

2) water flow

3) cooling system

4) surrounding atmosphere

5) fuel vapor expansion

6) transuranic wastes

7) radioactive materials

8) exposed core

9) to raise power output

10) massive power surges

 

3. Найдите в тексте английские эквиваленты следующих словосочетаний:

1) повышение давления

2) деятельность была приостановлена

3) резко возрасти

4) продукты распада

5) потушить огонь в реакторе

6) нейтронно-поглощающие материалы

7) ошибка оператора

8) проводить испытание

9) управляющие стержни

10) скачки в напряжении

 

4. Найдите в тексте слова, имеющие общий корень с данными словами. Определите, к какой части речи они относятся, и переведите их на русский язык:

Location, replacement, accidental, preparatory, movement, creation, production, explosives, constructive, intensive.

 

5. Задайте к выделенному в тексте предложению все типы вопросов (общий, альтернативный, разделительный, специальный: а) к подлежащему, б) к второстепенному члену предложения.

6. Выполните анализ данных предложений, обратив внимание на следующие грамматические явления: формы и функции причастия, независимый причастный оборот, формы и функции герундия, герундиальный оборот, инфинитивные конструкции (сложное дополнение, сложное подлежащее), существительное в роли определения, функции слов one (ones), that (those), условные предложения (сослагательное наклонение 1 и 2 типов):

1. The scientists consider this type to be a result of many small mistakes adding up to create a catastrophe.

2. Because of the low level of water in the steam separator, the operator is said to increas the amount of feed water coming into it, in the hopes that the water level would rise.

3. This should have caused an increase in pressure in the cooling system, which in turn would have caused a decrease in steam in the core.

4. If they should ingest radioactive material, they could spread it around the countryside.

5. This would be catastrophic, as radioactive dust would once again rain down on the surrounding areas.

 

7. Ответьте на вопросы по тексту:

1. Is there only one reason of the Chernobyl tragedy?

2. What happened before the test?

3. What was done to get rid of radioactive materials?

4. What was the sarcophagus built for?

5. What are the problems with the sarcophagus?

6. Is there any human factor in the tragedy?

7. What is considered to be the main reason of the accident?

 

ВАРИАНТ №7

1. Прочитайте и переведите текст:

What is steam?

What is steam? “Water gone crazy with the heat” is as good an answer as any. Water will actually turn into steam in a vacuum if its temperature maintains 40 degrees F. Conversely, at a pressure of 3200 lbs. per square inch, and a temperature around 720 degrees, steam becomes “supercritical” and actually has a density the same as water. Modern steam systems run at these pressures because steam, which is a ‘super-radiant’ gas, absorbs and gives up heat much faster than water.

Only “dry” steam produces usable work. Steam is a dry, clear, tasteless gas. The cloudy stuff you can see coming out of a kettle is actually just water vapor and has no use for our needs because if you can see it, all the work has gone out of it.

Once water is turned to steam, you can raise the temperature of the gas and store more energy/work in it. We call this “superheated” steam and though it is a desirable condition, it is seldom used in small-scale steam plants.

What we want to do with steam is extract work from it. Work is best described as the movement or change of velocity of mass. It takes energy to do work. To impart energy to a mass is one thing, and to transmit and use that energy is another. Water, in the form of steam, is an excellent medium to transmit energy.

Water is a practical, safe and effective non-organic chemical that will readily absorb and transmit energy. To understand how this happens, try to think in differentials, i.e., differences in temperature, differences in pressure, or more specifically, differences in volume. As steam goes from one volume to another, work is done. An example of this is a piston going down in a cylinder creating more space or volume (expansion). As volumetric changes occur, temperature and pressure changes must also occur. These are laws of nature that you cannot change. We have units to measure the properties of mass. Generally, pressure is measured in pounds per square inch, volume in cubic feet, and temperature in degrees Fahrenheit.

At this point, let me introduce you to the British thermal unit (Btu). It’s the United States unit of measure, which is similar to the metric system’s calorie. It is nothing but a unit of heat. One Btu is the amount of heat required to raise one pound of water one degree Fahrenheit. Conversely, if a pound of water drops one degree, it releases one Btu.

When any fuel is burned, it gives off energy in the form of heat, and that heat can be measured in either Btu’s or calories. We’ll use Btu’s. An example is oak wood, which has 6-11 thousand Btu’s per pound. Consider it as potential energy or energy waiting to happen. When oxidized (burned), it releases energy, and if we make steam with that energy, we can use the steam to transmit that energy somewhere else to do useful work.

Other sources of Btu’s can be a hot spring or solar. Remember, what we are looking for is a difference in temperatures; the higher we can raise the temperature of water, the more work we can get out of the water. Unfortunately, the less the difference in tem