Exercise 2: Fill in appropriate articles before substantivized adjectives where necessary. Tell whether an adjective wholly-substantivized or partially-substantivized.

1. She was twenty-four. Her skin was pale with a touch of … green. 2. She had dressed carefully – the dress matching the tone of her skin seemed to emphasize … green of her eyes. 3. Fanny Price coloured. The blood under her unhealthy skin seemed to be … strange purple. 4. The sky was … light, radiant blue, but, although it was only early afternoon, a mist was creeping on the brilliant grass. 5. His eyes were large and blue, but … blue was pale, and they looked rather tired already. 6. I have nice hair. It is black - … real black, not … dark brown. 7. The sun in the west was a drop of … burning gold that slid nearer and nearer the sill of the world. 8. I enjoyed the sensation of sitting quietly beside her and looking at … pale gold of her hair and … pale gold of her skin. 9. Ralph ignored Jack’s question. He pointed to the touch of … yellow above the sea. 10. There was a scent of honey from the lime trees in flower, and in the sky … blue was beautiful, with a few white clouds which looked and perhaps tasted like lemon ice. 11. He himself had always liked … French, feeling at home with their wit, their taste, their cooking. 12. He’s … Swiss, I believe. 13. I thought he was … Turkey as he spoke … fluent Turkish. 14. You can’t be a captain because you don’t know … Italian well enough. 15. I only write about what a beautiful place we live in and how brave … Italians are. 16. … Swiss are a very intelligent race and keenly alive to architectural beauty. 17. At dinner I ate very quickly and left for the villa where … British had their hospital. 18. I was obviously … German in Italian uniform. 19. You don’t understand … German, do you? She wasn’t Swede, like her husband. 20. It would be better to be in the study hall than out in … cold. 21. You are too brave. Nothing ever happens to … brave. The coward dies a thousand deaths, … brave but one. 22. It was always your ambition to be a nurse and help … sick ever since you were a little child, wasn’t it? 23. Philip learned how little there was in common between … poor and classes above them. 24. Old Jolyon sighed; he had an insatiable appetite for … young. 25. We’ll be getting to Twelve Oaks in a little bit, and every man there, … old and … young, wanting to know about the horses.

 

Exercise 3. Translate into English, using the adjective, underline it and comment on its use.

1. Прекрасное всегда радует глаз. 2. Он внезапно вышел из комнаты. 3. Небо было ярко-голубое. 4. Чёрный был определённо не её цвет. 5. Не стойте на холоде. Вы хотите заболеть? 6. Это были люди, которые посвятили себя изучению неизвестного. 7. У неё были тёмно-золотистые волосы, тёмно-коричневые глаза, а кожа бледно-золотистая. 8. Старые не всегда и даже большую часть времени не чувствуют себя старыми. 9. Элиза была прекрасна в чёрном и белом. 10. Мне нравится ваша седина на висках. 11. Они просили его о невозможном. 12. У неё были тёмно-голубые глаза. 13. Я полагаю, вы правы, всё идёт к лучшему. 14. Он принял неизбежное. 15. Большинство раненых были спокойны, но некоторые очень шумели. 16. Когда мы вместе работали, я делал вам много хорошего. 17. Он, бывало, вознаграждал добрых и наказывал жестоких. 18. У неё были необыкновенные способности смешивать главное с второстепенным. 19. Её мысли были заняты будущим. 20. Джейн была высокая, смуглая и красивая. Она была одета в белое, а в её чёрных волосах сияли бриллианты. 21. Они русские. Русские – прекрасный народ. 22. Говорят, он не швед, а болгарин. 23. Он хорошо говорил по-немецки и гораздо хуже по-английски. 24. Я думал, что вы сказали, что он француз, так как он хорошо говорит по-французски. 25. “Не может быть, что вы англичанин, так как вы недостаточно хорошо знаете английский. Вы даже и не итальянец”. “Я чех, но я был в Италии, - сказал я, - и говорил по-итальянски”.

 

Unit 2

Verb and Verbals

Learning objectives:

Define verb, transitive/intransitive verb, auxiliary verb, verbals, Infinitive, Gerund, Participle

Explain how to parse verb, Infinitive, Participle, Gerund

Analyze grammatical categories of the verb, the categories of person, number, tense, aspect, voice and mood; the noun-infinitive/the qualifying infinitive

Key point:

Verb, it’s definition and parsing; Infinitive, it’s definition and parsing; Participle, it’s definition and parsing; Gerund, it’s definition and parsing

Grammatically the verb is the most complex part of speech. This is due to the central role performs in the expression of the predicative functions of the sentence, i.e. the functions establishing the connection between the situation (situational event) named in the utterance and reality. The general categorial meaning of the verb is process presented dynamically, i.e. developing in time.

The grammatical categories of the verb are: 1) the category of finitude dividing the verb into finite and non-finite forms (the corresponding contracted names are “finites” and “verbids”, this category has a lexico-grammatical force); 2) the categories of person, number, tense, aspect, voice, and mood.

Verb: a word used for stating a fact or condition, giving an order or a request, or asking a question.

Transitive: denotes an action that is directed towards some person or thing; as “he shot a crow”.

Intransitive: denotes an action that stops with the doer, and concerns no person or thing except the doer; as “he fell ”.

Auxiliary: assists a Principal verb (which may be either Transitive or Intransitive) that form some tense or tenses in the Indicative or Subjunctive mood and in the Active or Passive voice; as “I have come”.

 

Voice

Active: when the verb is in the Active voice, the person or thing denoted by the Subject is said to do something, as “I love. ”

Passive: when the verb is in the Passive voice, the person or thing denoted by the Subject is said to suffer something, as “I am loved ”.

 

Finite Moods

Mood: the form assumed by a verb to show the mode or manner in which the action denoted by the verb is represented.

Indicative: asserts something as a fact, or as a condition, as “ I come ” “ if he comes ”. Or it enquires about something, as “ Did he come?”

Imperative: commands, or advises, or begs for something, as come.

Subjunctive: expresses a condition, a purpose, or a wish, - any kind of contingency except a fact, as “if he come or should come ” (condition), “that he may come ” (purpose), “ may he come!” (wish).

 

Tenses in the Finite Moods

Tense: the form assumed bya verb for showing (a) the time at which an event occurs, (b) the degree of completeness described to an event at the time of its occurrence.

Indefinite: denotes Present, Past, or Future time in its simplest form, making no-definite assertion about the degree of completeness or incompleteness to be ascribed to the event, as “I come ”, “I came ”, “I shall come ”.

Continuous: denotes that the event (in Present, Past, or Future time) is not yet complete, but still going on, as “I am coming ”, “I was coming ”, “I shall be coming ”.

Perfect: denotes that the event (in Present, Past, or Future time) is in a completed or perfect state, as “I have come ”, “I had come ”, “I shall have come ”.

Perfect-Continuous: combines the force of the two preceding forms, as “I have been coming ”, “I had coming ”, “I shall have been coming ”.

Person: a verb is in the First person when the subject of the verb denotes a person speaking: in the second person when it denotes a person spoken to: in the third person when it denotes a person (or thing) spoken of.

 

Complement of a verb

Complement to an Intransitive verb, or to a Transitive verb in the Passive voice, is a word or combination of words, which completes what the verb left unsaid about its Subject. This is called a Subjective complement.

Complement to a Transitive verb in the Active voice is a word or combination of words, which completes what the verb left unsaid about its O bject. This is called an Objective complement.

 

Finite verb and Subject

 

How to parse Finite Verbs. – the point to be explained in the parsing of a finite verb are shown in their proper order in the following tables:

 

 

Kind of verb	Voice	Mood	Tense. Form of Tense
Transitive Intransitive	Active Passive	Indicative Imperative Subjunctive	Present Indefinite Past Continuous Future Perfect Future in the Past Perfect-Continuous

 

Number	Person	Agreement
Singular Plural	First Second Third	Agreeing in Number and Person with its subject or subjects, expressed or understood.

Examples of parsing finite verbs:

1. James has been fishing all the morning. Has been fishing – Intransitive verb. Active voice, Indicative mood, Present-Perfect-Continuous tense, having “James” for its subject, and therefore in the Singular number and Third person.

2. James and I will be promoted next term. Will be promoted - Transitive verb. Passive voice, Indicative mood, Future tense, having “James” for the two subjects, and therefore in the Plural number and First person.

3. He worked hard that he might win a prize. Worked - Intransitive verb. Active voice, Indicative mood, Past tense, having “he” for its subject, and therefore in the Singular number and Third person. Might win - Transitive verb. Active voice, Subjunctive mood, Past tense, having “he” for its subject, and therefore in the singular number and Third person.

4. You will have got to your house by the time. Will have got - Transitive verb here used Intresitively. Active voice, Indicative mood, Future-Perfect tense, having “you” for its subject, and therefore in the Plural number and Second person.

5. The jury were puzzled and would have been divided in their opinions, if judge had not known well how to guide them.

Were puzzled - Transitive verb. Passive voice, Indicative mood, Past tense, having “jury” for its subject, and therefore in the Plural number and Third person.

Would have been divided - Transitive verb. Passive voice, Subjunctive mood, Future-Perfect tense, having “jury” for its subject, and therefore in the Plural number and Third person.

Had known - Transitive verb. Active voice, Indicative mood, Present-Perfect tense, having “judge” for its subject, and therefore in the Singular number and Third person.

6. So be it. Be - Intransitive verb. Subjunctive mood, Present tense, having “it” for its subject, and therefore in the Singular number and Third person.

Verbals

 

Verbals are the forms of the verb intermediary in many of their lexico-grammatical features between the verb and non-processual parts of speech.

Infinitive is the non-finite form of the verb that names the action in its most general sense, without reference to any doer.

Participle is the non-finite form of the verb which is used either (a) as part of a tense and as such preceded by an auxiliary verb be or have, or (&) as an adjective to qualify some noun or pronoun.

Gerund is the non-finite form of the verb that possess the characteristics of noun and verb, - (1) a noun in so far as it can be in the Nominative or Accusative case; (2) a verb in so far as it expresses Present or Past tense, - is in the Active or Passive voice, and (if Transitive) is followed by an object.

 

The parsing of Infinitives

How to parse Infinitives. – To parse an Infinitive you have to show two different types of concerning it: - (a) Of what form it is, - whether Indefinite, as to see; or Continuous, as to be seeing; or Perfect, as to have seen; or Perfect-Continuous, as to have been seeing. (b) Of what voice it is, - whether Active, or Passive; (c) What is its use. – whether it is used as a Noun-Infinitive or as a Qualifying Infinitive. (d) In what function it is, - whether in the function of subject (To skate is pleasant), compound nominal predicate (Our plan is to go to the Crimea for the summer), compound verbal predicate (I hope to see him soon), direct object (I told him to go there), attribute (I have no desire to go there), adverbial modifier of purpose (He worked hard not to lag behind the other students) and adverbial modifier of result (It is too cold to bathe today).

The Noun-Infinitive. In this capacity the Infinitive does the work of – (a) Subject to a verb, (b) Object to a verb, (c) Complement to a verb, (d) Object to a preposition. Since it does the work of a noun, it is very fitly called the Noun-Infinitive.

a) Subject to a verb: - To sleep is necessary to health. To work hard is the way to success.

b) Object to a verb: - No desire to improve.

c) Complement to a verb: - I saw him come. I ordered him to go. (Note. The “to” is not used after the hear, see, feel, make, let, bid, behold, know, to all of which the Infinitive is used as complement.)

d) Object to a preposition: - 1) He did nothing but laugh. 2) My plans are about to succeed. In (1) the Infinitive laugh is the object of the preposition but. In (2) the Infinitive to succeed (= success) is the object of the preposition about which signifies nearness or contiguity in time, place, or other circumstance.

The Qualifying Infinitive – In this capacity the Infinitive does the workof (a) an adverb to a verb, (b) an adverb to an adjective, (c) an adjective to a noun, (d) a participle to a noun or pronoun in a future sense.

a) Adverb to a verb: - 1) He came to see the sport. 2) It came to pass. In (1) to see qualifies the verb “came”, as if it were an adverb. Here the Infinitive denotes a purpose: He came for the purpose of seeing the sport. In (2) to pass expresses not a purpose, but a result.

b) Adverb to an adjective: - 1) Quick to hear and slow to speak. Here to hear qualifies the adjective “quick”, and to speak qualifies “slow”, the Infinitive therefore does the work of an adverb. “Quick for hearing and slow for speaking.”

c) Adjective to a noun (either as an epithet or predicatively): - 1) A house to let. 2) This house is to let. Here to let qualifies the noun “house” as an epithet in first example, and predicatively in the second. In each case, therefore, it does the work of an adjective.

d) Participle to a noun or a pronoun in a future sense; where this use of the Infinitive is explained. 1) He intended to have seen you today. 2) I came to see you, but you did not appear. “To have seen” in (1) – Perfect in form, noun in function, object to the Transitive verb “intended”. “To see” in (2) – Indefinite in form, adjective in function, qualifying the verb “came”. “Appear” in (2) – Indefinite in form, noun in function, object to the verb “did”.

 

The parsing of Participles

How to parse Participles. – To parse a Participle you have to show four different things concerning it:

a) In what form it is, - whether Present, as fading; or Past, as faded; or Perfect, as having faded.

b) What kind of verb it is, - whether Transitive or Intransitive.

c) In what the use of the Participle is, - Predicative, Adverbial modifier of various types, Attribute.

d) Of what voice it is, - whether Active, or Passive

Note 1. – If the Participle given is part of a tense, it should be parsed as part of the tense, and not as a separate word. Thus in I have come we should parse come not as a separate word, but as part of a Present Perfect.

Note 2. – The epithet and Predicative uses of participles are the same of those of adjectives. The Absolute use in connection with some noun or pronoun.

Example:

(1) He appeared tired after his work.

Past participle. Transitive verb. Passive voice, used predicatively as complement to the verb “appeared”.

(2) Believing himself to be right, he stuck to his opinion.

Present participle. Transitive verb. Active voice, used as an epithet to qualify the pronoun “he”.

(3) The sun having risen, we can now set off.

Perfect participle. Intransitive verb. Active voice, used absolutely with the noun “sun”.

Note.- When no noun or pronoun is placed before a participle used absolutely, then a participle is practically a preposition. Such a participle is sometimes called an Impersonal Absolute. (1) He plays well, considering his age. (2) Owing to his lameness he could not walk straight.

 

The parsing of Gerunds

Gerund is a mixture of verb and noun. To parse it you have to show three different things about it in its verb-character, and one thing about it in its noun-character.

As verb. (a) In what form it is, - whether Indefinite, as going, or Perfect, as having gone.

(b) What kind of verb it is, - whether used Transitively or Intransitively.

(c) In what voice it is, - whether Active or Passive.

As noun (d) In what case it is, - whether Nominative, Accusative, or Genitive etc.

Examples.

(1) He is fond of swimming in the sea, and was pleased with himself for having swum out far from the shore. (Swimming – (1) as Verb; Indefinite; Intransitive verb; (2) as Noun; Accusative case after the preposition “for”).

(2) Deceiving others amused him, but he disliked being deceived himself. (Deceiving – (1) as Verb; Indefinite; Transitive verb; Active voice; (2) as Noun; Accusative case after the verb “disliked”).

The form ending in – ing may be either (a) followed by the preposition “of”; or (b) used in the plural number. In such cases it is a pure noun, and should be parsed like any other noun. It has no verb-character whatever; and hence it is qualified by an adjective, while, in its other uses, the gerund is qualified by an adverb.

(1) The second hearing of the case was postponed. Gerund, Singular number. Nominative case. Subject to the verb “was postponed.”

(2) I am much pleased with the surroundings. Gerund used as a Common noun. Plural number. Accusative case after the preposition “with.”

 

Test questions:

1. What are transitive and intransitive verbs?

2. What are the features of the finite form of the verb?

3. What is the verbal?

4. Give the definition of the gerund. What is the way of its parsing?

5. What is the infinitive? How should it be parsed?

6. What are the uses of the infinitive? Speak on them.

7. Participle, its definition, ways of the parsing.