Quantative data and analysis

To prove the relevance of the above-mentioned statements, let us study some examples of the fire consequences in Russia and abroad in heavily attended places: residential social service institutions, functional health facilities, cafes, clubs and restaurants (refer to Table 1), according to the RIA Novosti newswire.

Table 1 - Statistics of some examples of the fire consequences

No, year	Date		Name of organisation and incident scene	Fire death toll		Notes
1		2	3		4	5
1 2009		05.12.2009	Night Club “Khromaya Loshad”		156 people	The cause of the fire was the careless use of pyrotechnics in the club. 111 people died of burns, from carbon monoxide poisoning and due to a stampede.
2 2012		19.02.2012	Restaurant in the settlement of Gorki-25, Dmitrovsky district (Moscow region)		9 people	The cause of the fire was two gas cylinders explosion.
3 2013		13.09.2013	Male department of the psycho-neurological boarding school “Oksochi” in Novgorod region		37 people	The cause of the fire was the use of pyrotechnics by the musicians, from which the ceiling of the facility, or rather soundproof polyurethane foam, caught fire. The foam burst into flames at a quick pace and released gas.
4 2015		13.12.2015	Voronezh Neuropsychiatric Dispensary (Voronezh region)		23 people	Two people died in a fire, the others after being admitted to hospitals.
5 2015		31.10.2015	Night Club “Colectiv” in Bucharest (Romania)		27 people	The cause of the fire was the launch of fireworks during the performance of the heavy metal band “Goodbye to Gravity” with the musical piece “The Day We Die”. It was officially reported that more than 140 people were taken to hospital due to burns and carbon monoxide poisoning.
6 2017		14.06.2017	High-rise building “Grenfell Tower”		30 people (70 were reported missing)	The cause of the fire was poor insulation in the building and its interior facing, the lack of automatic fire-fighting systems
7 2018		25.03.2018	Shopping center “Zimnyaya vishnya” (Kemerovo)		64 people	The cause of the fire was careless handling of fire, short circuit of wiring and arson

The data presented in Table 1 show that fires in such facilities with mass deaths of people (in total, according to Table 1, there were 346 dead people) occur regularly and worldwide. Unfortunately, information on the use of self-rescuers during these fires is not available. Herewith, there are not enough prompt and coordinated actions of firefighters and rescuers, including the insufficient level of the fire-fighting equipment operability to exclude the possibility of people’s death. It is obvious that cafes, clubs and restaurants both in Russia and abroad are not overwhelmingly equipped with RPE.

Discussion

It should be assumed that people die as a result of poisoning by combustion products and, if filter self-rescuers were used, the probability of preserving the lives of these people would be, in our opinion, extremely high.

In the 21st century there has been rapid development, range expansion, distribution and use of polymeric materials in buildings and facilities construction and decoration. These polymeric materials are often found indoors and complement each other.

In our opinion, investigations in the field of determining the composition of actual fire gases and the nature of their effects, including the joint effect on the organism, as well as from what materials and how actual fire gases are formed, are carried out insufficiently.

In this regard, let us pass judgement on the need to consider additional requirements to filter self-rescuers for protection against phosgene, dioxins, isocyanates, styrene and formaldehyde, not excluding protection against carbon monoxide, hydrogen cyanide, hydrogen chloride and acrolein.

It seems to us that protection against carbon monoxide is the main concern of RPE designers and manufacturers, and it is a filter self-rescuer that must provide protection in accordance with the existing national regulations [3] and [4].

We affirm that the level of contemporary sorption and gas mask technology allows us to design and mass-produce filter self-rescuers that meet both the existing requirements, including protection against carbon monoxide, and the proposed additional requirements for protection against actual fires and gases.

Based on the aforesaid, we think that under current conditions, a fire, as a source of chemical agents (CA) and highly toxic gases, is a likely adversary, whereas actual fire gases are the main public threat in peacetime. Moreover, population is exposed to these threats constantly and everywhere. Therefore, we are convinced that providing population with filter self-rescuers is extremely necessary. At this we see the role and intended purpose of filter self-rescuers in population protection. We proceed from the fact that filter self-rescuers must be used in buildings and facilities, instead of being kept in long-term storage warehouses. It must be obligatory but not advisory in Russia.

Conclusion

In this regard, we propose to equip heavily attended buildings and facilities with filter self-rescuers in order to ensure population protection. For this purpose, it is necessary:

1) to create a state document of a binding nature standardizing fire and emergency safety rules, and establishing safety requirements in terms of equipping buildings under construction, fully commissioned or being under reconstruction with filter self-rescuers and making possible to use them in case of fire and other emergencies.

2) to establish the rules in this document for the placement and use of filter self-rescuers in buildings and facilities in accordance with the classification similar to the functional fire hazard classes of mandatory standards [5], in an amount corresponding to the design capacity of these buildings and facilities.

In this respect, we affirm that the level of contemporary sorption and gas mask technology allows us to design and mass-produce filter self-rescuers that meet both the existing requirements, including protection against carbon monoxide, and the proposed additional requirements for protection against actual fire gases, as well as protection requirements for other emergencies.

JCS Sorbent is ready to participate in joint work on all the measures proposed in this paper regarding the requirements to filter RPE (filter self-rescuers) and the requirements for ensuring population protection.

Reference list

1. Технический регламент о требованиях пожарной безопасности : Федеральный закон от 22.07.2008 № 123-ФЗ (ред. от 27.12.2018). – Текст : электронный // КонсультантПлюс : справочно-поисковая система. – URL: http://www.consultant.ru/document/cons_doc_LAW_78699/ (дата обращения: 17.03.2020).

2. ГОСТ Р 53261-2009. Техника пожарная. Самоспасатели фильтрующие для защиты людей от токсичных продуктов горения при эвакуации из задымленных помещений во время пожара : общие технические требования : методы испытаний : дата введения 2010-01-01. – Текст : электронный // Техэксперт : электронный фонд правовой и нормативно-технической документации. – URL: http://docs.cntd.ru/document/1200072072 (дата обращения: 02.03.2020).

3. Лянг, А. В. Применение самоспасателей при возникновении пожаров в зданиях / А. В. Лянг. – Текст : непосредственный // Пожарная безопасность зданий и сооружений – 2008 : материалы научно-практической конференции. – Москва, 2008. – С. 56–63.

4. Романов, Ю. А. Средство спасения для эвакуации в условиях пожаров и техногенных аварий / Ю. А. Романов, В. П. Стариков, А. В. Лянг. – Текст : непосредственный // Чрезвычайные ситуации: предупреждение и ликвидация : тезисы докладов II Международной научно-практической конференции, посвященной 150-летию пожарной службы Республики Беларусь (Минск, 23–25 июля 2003 г.) / НИИ пожарной безопасности и проблем чрезвычайных ситуаций МЧС Республики Беларусь. – Минск, 2003. – Ч. 2. – С. 88–89.

5. СТБ 11.14.05-2010. Система стандартов пожарной безопасности. Самоспасатели фильтрующие для защиты органов дыхания : общие технические требования и методы испытаний : утвержден постановлением Госстандарта Республики Беларусь от 24 сентября 2010 г. № 58 : дата введения 2011-07-01. – Текст : электронный // Нормативные базы ГОСТ/СП/СНиП :библиотека нормативной документации. – URL: https://files.stroyinf.ru/Data2/1/4293738/4293738178.pdf (дата обращения: 09.03.2020).

 

Maxim Bulatov	Максим Булатов
Perm National Research Polytechnic University	Пермский Национальный Исследовательский Политехнический Университет
Investigation of Optical losses in Quartz Fibers with Polyimide Coatings	Исследование оптических потерь в кварцевых волокнах с полиимидными покрытиями
Abstract: The main factor limiting the scope of optical fibers application in such industries as nuclear energy, oil and gas, chemical, as well as outer space, is considered to be poor temperature resistance, determined primarily by the properties of conventional acrylate protective and hardening coatings. Therefore, polyimide coatings are specifically used for high temperatures. The article presents the study of optical fibers with polyimide coatings in terms of optical losses measured by termination method in an optical fiber with different polyimide coatings.	Аннотация: Основной фактор, ограничивающий сферу применения оптических волокон в таких отраслях, как ядерная энергетика, нефть и газ, химическая промышленность, а также космическое пространство считается низкая температурная устойчивость, определяемая в первую очередь свойствами традиционных акриловых защитных и утверждающих покрытий. Поэтому полиимидные покрытия специально используются для высоких температур. В статье представлено исследование волокон с полиимидными покрытиями с точки зрения оптических потерь, измерённые методом прерывания в оптическом волокне с различными полиимидными покрытиями.

Keywords: optical fibers, polyimide coatings, optical losses, termination method

Introduction

There has been a recent trend to make use of optical fibers in extreme conditions, such as nuclear power plants, oil wells, submarines and outer space, where they should provide signal transmission with minimal optical losses. In oil wells, optical fibers are used as sensors for temperature and mechanical stress distribution with the critical temperature of 380 ̊С and pressure 2·10³ atm, whereas optical fiber service life should take years, or even decades. The most important component of optical fiber is an external protective coating, which provides sealing of its surface, prevents degradation and deterioration of its mechanical properties.

Standard acrylate protective coatings allow the operation of optical fibers at temperatures not higher than 85 ̊С, while improved polyacrylate coatings make it possible to use optical fibers at the temperature of 150 ̊С [1]. Using silicone as a coating allows you to increase the operating temperature up to 200˚C [2]. Polymer protective coatings based on polyimides turn to be the most heat-resistant ones (with operating temperatures above 300 ̊С) [3-4].

Currently, polyimide coatings are produced by using polyamide acid which undergoes further chemical transformations (imidization) after the optical fiber has been coated [5]. Synthesis of polyamide acid for optical fiber samples is performed using the method of single-stage high-temperature polycondensation in solution [6]. As it follows from [7], when samples are heated in a polyimide coating at the temperature above 590˚±5˚C, polymer shell is deformed more intensively in the air atmosphere than in inert environment.

Polyimide varnish solution viscosity is a key factor for the successful coating of an optical fiber [8], since drops are formed on the optical fiber surface at low viscosity of the varnish.

The mechanisms of optical losses in optical fibers are presented in [9]. When propagating, the light in optical fiber weakens, which is called attenuation (or optical loss). Attenuation degree is determined by attenuation coefficient α, equal to:

(1)

where α_lig and α_uv are attenuation coefficients due to the losses of light energy dissipation and fundamental absorption in the spectrum ultraviolet region, respectively; α_imp – attenuation coefficient caused by the impurities present in the optical fiber; α_inf – additional optical losses due to twisting, bending deformation and geometric instability of the optical fiber; α_def – fundamental absorption losses in infrared region.

              Optical fibers with a polyimide coating were chosen as an object for studying the magnitude of optical losses in optical fibers when exposed to elevated (up to +300 ̊С).

              Therefore, the purposeof the study was to investigate the resistance of optical fiber to the effects of high (up to +300 ̊С).

              Materials and Methods

              To measure optical losses, multimode gradient optical fibers with a germanosilicate core were selected: with sheath diameter 125 ± 1 μm and core diameter 50 μm. Polyimide coating diameter was 155 μm; the imported polyimide manufactured by HD Microsystems and domestic polyimide produced by INEOS RAS were taken for comparison. Optical fibers under investigation were as long as 1000 m and 700 m, respectively.

              Determining the change of optical losses in an optical fiber subjected to temperature tests is an important parameter of fiber's performance at specified temperatures.

              Termination method is correct for measuring optical losses, which directly results from determination of attenuation in optical fiber, where power levels P₁(λ) and P₂(λ) are measured at two points of the fiber not changing the radiation input conditions. P₁(λ) is the power received at the fiber output, and P₂(λ) is the power received at the point near the input of the same fiber after it was cut up to 2 m. Radiation power is measured under normal climatic conditions – P₁(λ) (Fig. 1). Then the optical fiber under test is cleaved at a point located 2 m far from the weld site with the power emitter channel, and optical power P₂(λ) is measured, a short piece of optical fiber is connected to the power receiver using a ferule (the fiber was previously cleaned and cleaved). The circuit is shown in Fig. 2. Attenuation coefficient is calculated according to the formula:

(2)

where L – the length of optical fiber, A(λ) is usually measured in [dB / km].

Figure 1. Circuit for measuring optical power by termination method in optical fiber

Figure 2. The cut optical fiber under test

       Results and Discussion

Optical fibers were rewound in free winding d = 15.5 cm and tested at the temperature of 280 ̊С within 24 hours. Optical losses were monitored by an FHO 5000 optical reflectometer at a wavelength of 850 nm and 1300 nm. Fig. 3. shows the dependence of optical losses, temperature on the time of optical fiber being covered with an imported polyimide.

Figure 3. Dependence of optical losses, temperature on the time of optical fiber being covered with an imported polyimide

            Under the influence of 280 ̊С, the optical loss at a length of 850 nm increased by 0.4 dB / km, and when cooled, it relaxed to its previous value. At a wavelength of 1300 nm, a change in optical loss was not observed. The decrease in optical loss upon exposure to 280 ̊С is probably associated with the evaporation of the solvent and a decrease in the stiffness of the polyimide coating. According to the international OM2 standard, optical losses should not exceed 3.5 dB / km for a wavelength of 850 nm and 1.5 dB / km for a wavelength of 1300 nm. Thus, an optical fiber with an imported polyimide coating is in the range of this standard and is considered to be fully operational at high temperatures.

            Fig. 4. shows the dependence of optical losses, temperature on the time of optical fiber being covered with a domestic polyimide.

Figure 4. Dependence of optical losses, temperature on the time of optical fiber being covered with a domestic polyimide

            When heated to 280 ̊С, the optical loss at a wavelength of 850 nm increased by 0.3 dB / km, and after cooling, the optical fiber restored its parameters to 2.4 dB / km. At a wavelength of 1300 nm, optical losses slightly decreased at a heating temperature of 280 ̊С, but after exposure they increased by 0.1 dB / km. The optical fiber in the domestic polyimide coating also fully satisfies the OM2 standard and is able to fully operate at temperatures of about 300 ̊С.

            Conclusion

            Optical fibers with imported and domestic polyimide coatings are able to operate at the temperature of 280 ̊С, not losing an optical signal. This will allow the exploitation of such optical fibers in the oil or gas industry, as previously written. Evaporation of solvent from a polyimide coating and changes of its physical properties at testing do not critically increase optical losses. In addition, you can see that the increase in losses in domestic polyimide is less than in imported. Thus, comparing optical fibers with polyimide coatings from different manufacturers, it is preferable to make your choice of domestic polyimide. The use of such fibers in extreme operating conditions will replace copper wires (such as signal transmission), which fail at high temperature.

Reference list

1. Dipak, R. Biswas. Characterization of polyimide-coated optical fibers / R. Biswas Dipak. – Text : direct // Optical engineering. 1991. V. 30, № 6. P. 27–48.

2. Semjonov, S. L. High temperature polyimide coating for optical fibers / S. L. Semjonov, D. A. Sapozhnikov, D. Yu Erin. – Text : direct // Quantum Electronics. 2015. V. 45, № 4. P. 330–332.

3. Stolov Andrei A. Thermal Stability of Specialty Optical Fibers / Andrei A. Stolov, Debra A. Simoff, Jie Li. – Text : electronic // Journal of Lightwave Technology. 2008. V. 26, №. 20. – URL:https://www.researchgate.net/publication/228649202_Thermal_Stability_of_Specialty_Optical_Fibers (date accessed: 22.03.2020).

4. Ахмед, Б. Б. Определение термостойкости оптических волокон / Б. Б. Ахмед, К. Н. Нищев, А. А. Пыненков, Н. В. Моисеев. – Текст : непосредственный // Прикладная физика. 2017. № 5. С. 82–86.

5. Виноградова, С. В. Кардовые полигетероарилены. Синтез, свойства и своеобразие / С. В. Виноградова, В. А. Васнев, Я. С. Выгодский. – Текст : непосредственный // Успехихимии.1996. Том 65, № 3. С. 266–295.

6. Волоконно-оптические системы передачи и кабели : справочник / [И. И. Гроднев, А. Г. Мурадян, Р. М. Шарафутдинов и др.]. – Москва : Радио и связь, 1993. – 264, [1] с. : ил. – ISBN 5-256-00932-X. – Текст : непосредственный.

7. Высокотехнологичный полиимидный лак для изготовления волоконного световода / А. Ф. Косолапов, Е. А. Пластинин, С. Л. Семенов [и др.]. – Текст : непосредственный // Краткие сообщения по физике (ФИАН). 2017. Том 44, № 6. С. 9–14.

 

Elizaveta Cherepanova	Елизавета Черепанова
National Research University Higher School Of Economics	Национальный Исследовательский Университет «Высшая Школа Экономики»
The international legal status of information warfare and information weapons	Международно-правовой статус информационной войны и информационного оружия
Abstract: In this work, the author points out the meaning of information war in 21st century. The author introduces the concept of "information weapons" in two directions: the first direction of the military, and second – public. The author makes a point that information weapon can be necessary, but it must be controlled in our society.	Аннотация: В этой работе автор указывает на значение информационной войны в XXI веке. Автор поясняет понятие "информационное оружие" в двух направлениях: первое направление - военное, второе – гражданское. Автор отмечает, что информационное оружие может быть необходимым, но оно должно контролироваться в обществе.

 

The urgency is due to the development of information technology in the twenty-first century, communications and other IT devices, as well as the risks to civilians and the state, as these resources are increasingly being used as a weapon, undermining the security of the world, which is able to do damage comparable to the consequences of the open military conflict, which is a danger no less than the weapons used during hostilities. This work is devoted to study the status of information warfare and information weapons in international law and their impact on humanity as a whole, their international legal status and human rights.

The development of this concept began after the end of the cold war and became widely used after the operation "desert Storm" in 1991 in Iraq where the new information technology was first used for military purposes. But what is "information war"? There are two basic approaches to the interpretation of this concept. First, as pointed out by G. V. Alekseev, in his article[1] appeared immediately after the operation in Iraq and was laid down in the Memorandum № 30 (1993) Vice Minister of defense and the Chairman of the joint chiefs of staff of the Armed forces of the United States has identified information warfare as "actions taken to achieve information superiority in support national military strategy by affecting the information and information systems of the enemy while ensuring the safety and protection of own information and information systems". That is the key value of this approach is that the information war is understood as a means of achieving strategic goals during the period of hostilities. "The information war, open or covert targeted information impact of systems on each other with the purpose of obtaining a certain gain in material or military spheres". Famous adherents of this approach was L. D. Trotsky, Th. Goebbels, Winston Churchill and Allen Dulles.

The scientific community has not settled the debate about the status of information warfare and information weapons. However, there is the concept of "Convention on ensuring international information security, which is not valid, the States parties to the United Nations (further – UN) still can't come to a decision about her acceptance. The concept defines that the information war - confrontation between two or more countries in the information space with the purpose of damaging information systems, processes and resources, critical and other structures, undermining political, financial and social systems, the massed psychological treatment population to destabilize society and the country[2]. Spectrum of action concerning, related to the information war, defined broadly, based on this definition, actions "destabilizing society", it is possible to include actions in the framework of the social. networking and the media. In the author's opinion, mistakenly so widely interpreted this Institute and make it stand out as a separate category in international law, but the category of information weapons must be defined.

First, the information war is not a war, it is not a kind, because the concept of aggression is defined in General Assembly resolution: "Aggression is the use of armed force by a state against the sovereignty, territorial integrity or political independence of another state, or in any other manner inconsistent with the UN Charter, as set out in this definition[3]." Secondly, the information war can not exist independently from the hostilities, because it is one of the means to achieve strategically important objectives during certain operations associated with the intervention in the information system of the state.

Therefore, it is necessary to enter in the international humanitarian law category of the weapon – information. The additional Protocol to the Geneva conventions relating to the protection of victims of international armed conflicts, article 36 "New weapons" States that in the development or adoption of new weapons is necessary to determine whether their use under the prohibition contained in this Protocol or in international law[4]. Unlike information warfare weapon is the ways and means aimed at interference with information system and information security incident state, therefore, according to the author, legal regulation and provision of required arms. The category of information weapons should include those funds that can cause direct damage but not indirect, so the use of information weapons can not be attributed to the methods and means of psychological influence on society through the media or otherwise.

In accordance with the generally accepted approach under the arms is generally understood to be devices that are aimed at enemy targets, with the aim of complete or partial loss of ability to perform tasks[5]. The Dulevski article is proposed to refer to the information weapon is designed to destroy information systems military actions (means of interference weapons electromagnetic pulse and directed energy) and special software systems (computer viruses, computer worms, Trojan horses, hidden utilities administration)[6]. Therefore, the use of information weapons could include only information systems capable of causing direct harm.

However, in author’s opinion, it is necessary to introduce the concept of "information weapons" in two directions: the first direction of the military, which has already been described above, and second – public. Public information weapons is a false information being widely distributed by the media, disinformation the population and leads to destabilization of the society. Not to include in this category any rumor and is not significant about the news, you must enter criteria information to public information weapons. This: serious inflicted harm, wide spread and about the nature, intent (direct or indirect). As an example, which falls under these criteria can result in misinformation associated with the pandemic COVID-19 in 2019-2020. About the main idea, which received wide coverage in the media worldwide was the fact that the virus is a biological weapon that is created artificially, which has as its objective the regulation of the population of the planet. Misinformation was also linked to the dissemination of false statistics. "Roskomnadzor together with the General Prosecutor's office and law enforcement agencies taking steps to prevent the spread of false information related to the coronavirus. March 20, based on the requirements of the Prosecutor General of the Russian Federation Roskomnadzor has demanded that a number of media ("Echo of Moscow", "Said Magadan,") to remove inaccurate public significant information disseminated under the guise of reliable information that creates the threat of mass violations of public order and (or) public security," - said in a press release. The media will be subject to administrative sanctions[7]. Such information falls under the category of information weapons, as a result of its distribution was affected very many people (increased the percentage of nervous diseases), and began the "persecution" of many supposedly guilty countries.

Information weapon carries a number of threats against the state and the civilian population: dissemination of harmful information systems, aimed at the seizure of strategically important data and violation of the sovereignty of States, destabilization of society and inciting ethnic hatred and terrorist purposes.

The introduction of a new legal category – the information weapon is necessary in connection with the threats that it brings. Regulation will help to develop institutions that help to overcome the problems associated with intervention in information system States. For example, the author proposes the creation of an international intergovernmental organization specializing in monitoring non-proliferation of information weapons and control of ICTs for military and not military purposes. It is also proposed the elaboration of the agreement on the non-proliferation of information weapons, which will provide a legal ban on the use of ICTs for military purposes and the obligation of States not to create, not to bring information weapons or technology of its creation. All parties to the agreement must commit themselves to work for the cessation of the race of "information weapons" and complete prohibition of information weapons.

In conclusion, the information weapon must be controlled, since its distribution is no less harmful than any other kind of weapon, it also calls into question the security of the world and of all mankind, since false information can cause enormous harm.

Reference list

1. Additional Protocol to the Geneva conventions of 12 August 1949, and relating to the protection of victims of international armed conflicts (Protocol I). – Text : electronic // International Committee of the Red Cross : [site]. – URL: https://www.icrc.org/en/doc/assets/files/other/icrc_002_0321.pdf (date accessed: 22.03.2020).

2. Resolution of the UN General Assembly 3314 (XXIX) «Definition of aggression» adopted on 14 December 1974. – Text : electronic // Un Documents Gathering a Body of Global Agreements : [site]. – URL: http://www.un-documents.net/a29r3314.htm (date accessed: 19.04.2020).

3. Convention on ensuring international information security (concept). – Text : electronic // PIR Center : [site]. – URL: https://www.pircenter.org/kosdata/page_doc/p2728_1.pdf (date accessed: 19.04.2020).

4. Alekseev, G. V. Information war as a socio-legal category / G. V. Alekseev. – Text : direct // Bulletin of Saint Petersburg state University of information technologies, mechanics and optics : journal scientific-technical. 2004. № 12. P. 163–168.

5. Dylevski, I. N. The international non-proliferation regime for information weapons: utopia or reality? / I. N. Dylevski, O. V. Sipiagin, S. A. Komov [et al.]. – Text : direct // Military thought. 2014. № 10. P. 3–12.

6. Military Encyclopedic Dictionary : [site] / of the Ministry of Defense of the Russian Federation. – URL: http://encyclopedia.mil.ru/encyclopedia/dictionary/list.htm (date accessed: 04.04.2020). – Text : electronic.

7. Роскомнадзор потребовал у СМИ и соцсетей удалить фейки о коронавирусе. – Текст : электронный // РИА Новости : [сайт]. – URL: https://ria.ru/20200320/1568895921.html (date accessed: 22.03.2020).

 

Vasiliy Strelkov	Василий Стрелков
Perm National Research Polytechnic University	Пермский Национальный Исследовательский Политехнический Университет
Active carbons	Активированные угли
Abstract: Petroleum coke is a by-product obtained from the processing of heavy oil residues into light petroleum products. This research investigates the preparation of activated carbon from petroleum coke using physical activation techniques. Physical activation was performed using overheated water vapor and а muffle furnace heating. The largest specific surface area obtained was about 400 m2/g for raw materials obtained by delayed coking.	Аннотация: Нефтяной кокс является побочным продуктом, получаемым в результате переработки тяжелых нефтяных остатков в легкие нефтепродукты. В данной статье, изучается получение активированного угля из нефтяного кокса с использованием методов физической активации. Физическую активацию проводили с использованием перегретого водяного пара и нагрева в муфельной печи. Наибольшее полученная удельная площадь поверхности составила около 400 м2/г для сырья, полученного методом замедленного коксования.

Introduction

LUKOIL is one of the largest oil companies in Russia. Petroleum coke is the final product of oil refining process obtained as a result of delayed coking. Similar technologies are used at most company production facilities. Despite the way the process is defined and named, it is designed, first and foremost, to increase the yield of light oil fractions. Though, the inevitable result of obtaining light oil fraction is obtaining low-grade coke. The latter is an unsuitable raw material for making electrodes widely used in aluminum production. It is normally used as a filler, an additive or a fuel. Rather promising seems using low-grade petroleum coke as a raw material in the production of activated carbon. As we know, coke is a cheap raw material, while activated carbon is an expensive product, which makes the process of obtaining activated carbon from coke cost-efficient.

Today, a lot of petroleum coke is burned at heat-generating plants, as a result high volumes of carbon dioxide, carcinogens and harmful toxic substances are thrown into the atmosphere when petroleum coke burns. In other words, coke is not an environmentally friendly fuel which has a negative impact on the ecology. So we can suggest that using petroleum coke as a raw material to produce activated carbon might mitigate the negative effect it has on the environment when being burned. Apart from reducing carbon dioxide emission, it will make possible to use natural resources such as coal in a more rational way, because, as we know, it is coal that used to be a raw material in the production of activated carbon.