Using Melting Point to Determine the Identity of an Unknown Organic Acid

Martha A. Hass
Albany College of Pharmacy, Organic Chemistry Lab
Tuesday Morning Section
June 15, 2002

The identity of an unknown organic acid was determined. The compound was taken from a list of twenty, known organic acids, each with different melting points. An experimental melting point was determined for the unknown compound using a Fisher-Johns melting point apparatus. The thermometer of the apparatus was calibrated using benzoic acid as a standard. An experimental melting point (calibrated) of 184°C for the unknown acid was measured. This value most closely correlated with the literature melting point of p-anisic acid, one of the possible twenty compounds on the list. None of the other compounds on the list had melting points within 5°C of the experimental melting point. The unknown was identified as p-anisic acid. Experimental determination of the melting point of an unknown compound is useful for identifying the compound.

Sample C

Rapid methods to detect organic mercury and total selenium in biological samples

Dong-Ha Nam and Niladri Basu* Chemistry Central Journal 2011, 5:3 doi:10.1186/1752-153X-5-3 13 January 2011

Organic mercury (Hg) is a global pollutant of concern and selenium is believed to afford protection against mercury risk though few approaches exist to rapidly assess both chemicals in biological samples. Here, micro-scale and rapid methods to detect organic mercury (< 1.5 ml total sample volume, < 1.5 hour) and total selenium (Se; < 3.0 ml total volume, < 3 hour) from a range of biological samples (10-50 mg) are described.

For organic Hg, samples are digested using Tris-HCl buffer (with sequential additions of protease, NaOH, cysteine, CuSO4, acidic NaBr) followed by extraction with toluene and Na2S2O3. The final product is analyzed via commercially available direct/total mercury analyzers. For Se, a fluorometric assay has been developed for microplate readers that involves digestion (HNO3-HClO4 and HCl), conjugation (2,3-diaminonaphthalene), and cyclohexane extraction. Recovery of organic Hg (86-107%) and Se (85-121%) were determined through use of Standard Reference Materials and lemon shark kidney tissues.

The approaches outlined provide an easy, rapid, reproducible, and cost-effective platform for monitoring organic Hg and total Se in biological samples. Owing to the importance of organic Hg and Se in the pathophysiology of Hg, integration of such methods into established research monitoring efforts (that largely focus on screening total Hg only) will help increase understanding of Hg's true risks.

Tasks and Activities

Assignment I. To make sure your abstract meets the requirements and you have not forgotten or left out anything it is recommended to apply the checklist provided below. If everything is OK you should answer ‘Yes’ to every question. If any question gets a ‘No’ answer, you should carefully study the failure and improve your piece of writing. Apply this to one of the sample abstracts.

What Makes for a Good Abstract on a Science Project?	You Should Answer ‘Yes’/’No’ to Every Question
Does your science abstract include:
Introduction Problem Statement Procedures Results Conclusions	Yes / No Yes / No Yes / No Yes / No
Did you review the list of "Things to Avoid" in a science fair project abstract?	Yes / No
Did you write the abstract so that the reader is motivated to learn more about your science project and its results?	Yes / No

 

Assignment II. You have a number of words and word collocations which belong to different parts of the abstract structure. Analyze which part they belong to and classify them according to the correct categories in the table below. Can you add some more words?

It is necessary that a more thorough study of the phenomenon should be done.., The primary aim of the study is to test..., Particular attention is given to the optimal operating conditions…, The results obtained for both ketones studied are found to be very valuable for further research…, The problem was studied (a study was made of...)…, The process involved heating and was followed by quick cooling…, Finally the substance is washed, dried and weighed…, The object of the experiment is to describe..., The paper studies some photochemical characteristics of the substances concerned…, The chief purpose of the investigation is to establish..., The remarkable characteristic of the resulting compound is its resistance to aging and specific electrical insulating properties…, The conclusion is made that these mixtures have several advantages over others…

Introduction	Problem Statement	Procedures	Results	Conclusions

 

Assignment III. Apply the knowledge you have just acquired to a particular piece of writing:

1. Find three or four written abstracts from some papers you have read as part of your home reading assignment. It is important that you have actually read most of the papers.

2. Diagram each abstract into the 5 parts above.

3. Discuss with your group mates how each abstract meets or does not meet the above criteria. Some good abstracts may not perfectly match the criteria.

4. Discuss how they could be improved or why their choice is appropriate to the work and/or results in this paper.

5. Choose an abstract to improve and work on a computer or on paper to rewrite it. You can insert specifics that make the abstract correct, engaging and exclusive!

 

Assignment IV. Write an abstract for your project (e.g., your current or previous term paper), regardless of the status of the project. You should diagram the abstract and present it in class.

Even if the project is only half way through, you can write an optimistic abstract in which all the experiments or proofs turn out perfectly. Ask your scientific supervisor or the teacher in charge of the course to help you identify what the problem is and why it is important.

WRITING LETTERS

 

You have learned how to write official letters before (for details consult Part I which you used in the 2^nd year). Just to remind you of the structure of a standard remember that the major parts of the letter include:

1. Letterhead (usually a return address)

2. Date (remember the differences between the British and American ways of writing dates)

3. Your recipient’s address (including the name and the professional title (if any), the company or organization name, etc.)

4. An opening greeting (addressed to the same person as in 3)

5. Subject of the letter

6. The main body of the letter

7. A parting (depending on the form of address)

8. Signature (including your title)

9. Enclosures (if any).

If you send copies to a third party or parties, you should notify the recipient. You indicate it at the end of the letter like cc: Prof. J.Smith.

It is also possible to include a Postscript if you want to express an additional request or draw your recipient’s attention to some very important point. It is indicated by a special mark P.S. and is placed on the left below the body of the letter. In case you need to attach any supplementary materials or documents to the letter, you should indicate each document separately at the end of the letter like.

Tasks and Activities

Assignment I. Name the typical forms of address for a formal business letter Name the suitable closing phrase which goes together with the corresponding greeting. Here are some samples of the standard phrases. Where do they belong in the structure of the letter?

a. Dear Sir/Madam,

b. Yours faithfully,

c. Dear Mr. Deaver,

d. Yours sincerely,

e. Best wishes,

f. Yours truly,

g. Dear Professor Lowell,

h. Yours, Mike Linley

i. Dear Mr.Chairman,

j. Respectfully yours,

Assignment II. When you need, let us say, some advice, information or service you write a letter of request or inquiry. You studied the essentials of such types of letters last year. Examine the list of expressions provided below and choose those which are suitable for expressing the purpose of your letter asking for some advice, information or service:

a. I’d be very grateful to you if/for …

b. I’m sending you …

c. I’d appreciate it greatly if/for …

d. I fully understand that …

e. if you could provide me with …

f. I very much regret …

g. I am trying to find …

h. I would be very much obliged to you …

i. It’s a great pleasure to receive …

j. It is worth discussing …

Assignment III. Assume that you are writing a letter to a professor at some other university (you may use any imaginary names or titles) to ask for some information necessary for your report, research project, term paper or diploma. Your letter should include all major parts. Use the expressions from the previous assignments.

 

Assignment IV. Here is the letter of application in which the author of it is applying for the job and provides the details of his qualifications and achievements. Some words and word collocations in the letter are missing. Fill in the gaps from the list provided below choosing the best word that completes the sentence.

Anton S.Archipov 20-110 Tverskaya str. 220000 Minsk/Belarus   Mr.R.T.Young Director Human Resource Management Fuse & Simon Chemicals 2557 Tenth Street 06887Jackport, Wi Novel Drugs Research Department   Dear Mr.Young, I am applying for the position of Junior 1) ___ Fellow of the Novel Drugs Department which was advertised in the newspaper (BDG, May 10, 2011) and the Internet.   I am a 5th year student of the Chemistry Faculty at the Belarusian State University. My grades have been rather high and I expect to 2) ___ in June 2012 with the diploma with honours.   I have three years of 3) ___ working part-time as a laboratory assistant at the Department of Analytical Chemistry. During that time I have worked on a number of projects concerning 4) ___ and design. It has given me a lot of opportunity to develop my practical 5) ___ and ability to work independently and as a 6) ___ member.   I have attached my CV which gives a brief description of my 7) __. I will be glad to come for an 8) ___ any time in the afternoon. I am ready to begin work right after my graduation. I look 9) ___ to your 10) ___ and hope I can be of help for your company well-known for its success and image.   Sincerely,   Anton S.Archipov   Encl.: CV

 

1. a) study         b) research          c) investigations  

2. a) graduate         b) finish              c) complete

3. a) job                  b) experience            c) knowledge

4. a) drug abuse     b) drug application  c) drug analysis

5. a) skills         b) competition          c) training

6. a) crew          b) team               c) gathering

7. a) qualifications b) qualities          c) characteristics

8. a) report                 b) conversation     c) interview

9. a) after          b) forward          c) for

10. a) reply         b) replay             c) report    

Assignment V. You are provided with a letter expressing regret that the author of it is unable to attend the conference to which you have been invited. Some words and word collocations in the letter are missing. Fill in the gaps from the list provided below.

H. Silayeva 22-61, ul. Makayenka, 220000 Minsk/Belarus 20.02.20XX Dr. M. Murrey Chairman of the 1) ___ Nanoscience Conference 20XX Institute of Nanotechnology Urb. Cortijo Viejo (Puerto Calero) 35570 Lanzarote (Spain)   Call for Abstracts and Papers   Dear Dr. Murray,   Thank you very much for 2) ___ to attend the upcoming 3) ___ to be 4) ___ in June 10-13, 20XX and deliver a paper 5) ___ Supramolecular Nanomaterials: From Design to Reality.   I regret 6)___ you that I shall not be able 7) ___ the conference as I have other obligations during June. So I shall not be coming to the meeting myself but I shall be 8) ___ to you if you could 9) ___ the abstract of my paper which you will find 10) ___ to this letter.   Thank you very much for your 11) ___ and your kind consideration of my request. I look forward to 12) ___ from you soon.   Yours sincerely,   Helen Silayeva Assistant Professor Department of High-molecular Compounds

 

a) publish

b) to attend

c) understanding

d) the invitation

e) conference

f) hearing

g) grateful

h) attached

i) held

j) Organizing Committee

k) on

l) to inform

 

Assignment VI. In your future career you may be faced with the circumstances when you are supposed to ask for information or service, inform other people about something, or express your gratitude, etc. Think on the following possible situations and write a letter on a subject of your choice.

1. Write a letter (request/inquiry letter) to a contact person at another university (the title and the names may be fictional). Ask him/her to send you some information which you need for your project (scientific article, term or diploma paper, etc.).

2. Write a letter (request/inquiry letter) to the author of the article which you have read in the Journal of … (use real or fictional name) and which is of great interest to you. Ask him/her for more details and information on the subject.

3. Write a letter (acceptance letter) to the Chairman or Secretary of the Organizing Committee of the Conference on … (use an imaginary title) to which you have been invited. Express your gratitude and assure that the abstract on your presentation and paper will be sent on time.

4. Write a letter (a letter of decline/regret) to the Chairman or Secretary of the Organizing Committee of the Conference on … (use an imaginary title) to which you have been invited but cannot attend. Express your regret and state the reasons for not being able to attend.

5. Write a letter (cover letter) to the admission office of a college or university which you would like to enter (use real or fictional name). Provide the information about your academic and scientific interests and the papers you have included (enclosures).

 

 

Part III

 

SUPPLEMENTARY READING

Chemists of the future

by Klaus Müllen

The chemical industry is one of the most important economic sectors in Europe and particularly in Germany. This will presumably remain so in the future. In the aftermath of the recent commercial crisis, now more than ever there will be a greater demand on the chemical industry to be increasingly efficient and innovative. Many of the global challenges can only be addressed successfully by applying chemistry. Some the most important areas in which chemistry will play an integral part in the future include better medicine, food for the growing population, provision of sustainable energy, mobility, and clothing. Accordingly, chemical production will remain at high levels as will chemical research. It follows that innovative chemistry is a prerequisite for creating the necessary chemical products and chemical answers to these challenges.

Hence, chemists working in research play a key role for future life on earth and will continue to do so. We have learned from several environmental problems during the last few decades that chemistry is often considered by the broader public as a problem maker. However, it undoubtedly has the potential to change this misconception and can be seen in a much more positive light as a problem solver. One example of this is in the field of chemical sustainability. Here, the focus is not solely directed at solving problems associated with chemical production and the related products (e.g. waste water treatment, dioxine-free production, or coatings free of organic solvents, all of which could be considered under the umbrella of Green Chemistry), but also at supporting other branches, social fields, and groups, or other research disciplines with the necessary chemical know-how to achieve more sustainability (e.g. in energy supply).

Let us now focus on the energy issue. This is truly an interdisciplinary issue as we need to address the potential dramatic shortfall in the global energy supply in the not too distant future. Engineers, physicists, biologists as well as chemists (of course) are involved. All of these scientists will have to intensify their cooperation, in academia as well as in industry. The contribution of chemistry to future energy supplies is manifold: the provision of fuels from crude oil, natural gas, coal, and biomass, the production and storage of hydrogen as a contribution to the hydrogen economy, the generation of energy from sunlight, the development of fuel cell technology, of new types of batteries, and supercars, the provision of thermoelectric devices, of materials for collectors, and for superconductors, of luminescent materials, for example, for light-emitting diodes, of lightweight materials, and nano-porous foams. All of these diverse fields reflect innovations in chemistry at their core. Chemists and engineers will also continue to enhance the energy efficiency of chemical production processes and the development of power plant technologies.


To meet these challenges, we need traditionally educated chemists with a fundamental background in inorganic, organic, and physical chemistry whether they ultimately work as electrochemists, photo chemists, chemical engineers, polymer chemists, solid-state chemists, or in other areas of chemistry. Modern Master Programs at universities are increasingly becoming specialized and offer many options for an interdisciplinary education. This leads us to the question whether a chemist (with a Bachelor degree) is still a chemist after he or she has received a Master degree in a major such as ‘Hydrogen Technology’ or ‘Renewable Energies’, which at first sight might seem relatively distant from ‘chemistry’. Admittedly, we have to anticipate new job titles for scientists and engineers now and in the future (such as material scientist, nano-structure scientist, or environmental scientist). Nevertheless, a chemist remains a chemist, when he has received the degree of a Bachelor of Science in Chemistry or when he is working on chemical issues.

For example, the Nobel Laureate in Chemistry in 2007, Gerhard Ertl, studied physics. He needed more than merely a foundation in physics for his chemical research on surface processes that are important for understanding the mode of operation of catalysts. Ertl, the physicist, worked as a chemist; thus, he is both. This combined approach to physics and chemistry is certainly not new. After all, physical chemistry (as the chemists call it) or chemical physics (as the physicists call it) is one of the classical pillars of chemistry. Accordingly, many other similar interdisciplinary developments can also be expected in related fields.

Chemists need to learn more than just the fundamentals of biochemistry, biotechnology, and biology, not only for converting biomass into fuels and platform chemicals but also for promoting progress in medicine, pharmacy, and agriculture. Extensive knowledge in biochemistry and white, red, and green biotechnology are currently revolutionizing anthropogenic conversion processes of matter with great potential for the future. Nonetheless, it is essential to simultaneously preserve the classical core competences in chemistry.

The future belongs to the chemical and molecular sciences! This is one of the reasons why the Federation of European Chemical Societies in 2004 changed its name to the European Association for Chemical and Molecular Sciences (EuCheMS). Similarly, e.g., at the national level, the Gesellschaft Deutscher Chemiker (GDCh, German Chemical Society) regularly points out that it represents the entire field of the molecular sciences. I highly recommend that chemistry adopts a healthy self-confidence in the future, in which it does not abandon its classical areas, but resets its boundaries and welcomes interdisciplinary exchanges at all levels. In former times the natural scientist was an all-rounder, knowing nearly everything about chemistry, physics, biology, and medicine. Today this is impossible, and even an all-rounder in chemistry will hardly survive in the future.

To be engaged in research and development is not the only business of a chemist. Many chemists follow a career path in which they seek to climb the job ladder within the management of a company. In the past that could only be realized through learning-by-doing, through enrolling in continuing education courses, or through additional MBA studies. Now, from the outset of their employment, chemists can signalize to their particular company that they wish to pursue a career in management simply by the fact that they have studied business chemistry (economics and chemistry). In Germany, several universities and higher education establishments offer this opportunity. Beyond this, the Gesellschaft Deutscher Chemiker (German Chemical Society) offers courses for younger chemists that culminate in the award of a certificate entitled ‘project manager of business administration in chemistry’. It is important that in the chemical and related industries, the top positions are filled with business-minded chemists, who have expertise in both areas.

At present, as far as I can see, we urgently need chemists with expertise in science management and communication. We need them to foster the interaction and cooperation between chemists, other scientists, and engineers in university research, in industrial research and development, and between this more or less scientific-technical community and the decision-makers as well as the general public. To get national or European subsidies for research and development with the aim to advance innovation in molecular sciences in Germany or Europe, academic and industrial researchers and developers are frequently overwhelmed by the necessary bureaucracy. For the organization and handling of research projects of different types, scientists and engineers are required to have a broad knowledge in their fields, for example chemistry, and other organizational, administrative, and communicational skills. They have to effectively communicate their ideas to the general public, as spokesmen for scientific development and progress, so as to allay any unwarranted fears. 

Importantly, the chemistry programs at universities need to provide the ideal environment to develop and hone the problem-solving skills in chemistry. That´s what the public is expecting from chemists and why chemists are needed urgently. For these reasons we need to encourage the brightest students to study chemistry.

What else is there to say about the chemist of the future? Even more than today he or she will need to be a global citizen, and this should be developed already during university studies. Today, in the field of higher education, we talk about the European Education Area as created by the Bologna Process, in which the focus is the mobility of students and the comparability of degrees within Europe. These are important ingredients for both industrial and academic careers, and are also of importance to companies that want to expand and develop new markets abroad.

We should also discuss how we will promote a better use of the term ‘chemistry’ in the future. At present, when the term chemistry is applied in newspapers, television, radio and other media, it has negative connotations in most cases. Sadly, even for highly educated people, chemistry is often associated with something to be afraid of, which probably accounts for why scientists – yes, chemists, too – when they have to write proposals for grants that will be reviewed by non-chemists (that means other scientists or politicians, for instance) avoid the term ‘chemistry’ wherever possible. Even the chemical industry has developed a tendency to avoid the word chemistry (although fortunately not all of them, ‘BASF – The Chemical Company’ being the most prominent counter example) preferring rather to be considered as the life science industry.
Chemistry as a subject at school, in contrast, is not under threat today. Far from it! The question remains, however, why chemistry is offered so late in schools, and why pupils or students then normally have to learn complicated chemical equations with a complicated stoichiometry at the beginning of their chemistry education? If we could succeed in introducing children at a much younger age more passionately to chemistry, if teachers would start with the achievements chemistry has made possible, if they could discuss new materials and their applications, if they would show chemistry in everyday use and life, before they start with complicated stoichiometries that discourage almost everybody – would that not be a better way to make chemistry more appealing?
Allow me to close on a personal note. In Germany there is consensus that we need better education in science and technology, because we can only improve our world if we understand scientific and technological relationships. We must attract children to the world of science and technology. This can be done in part through campaigns like the Year of Chemistry (which we had in Germany in 2003 and which was international for 2011), open days in the chemical industry or academic research laboratories, or chemistry shows. All this is nice, but more importantly we need a continuous, exciting, and fascinating education of the sciences from kindergarten nurseries up to high school. Glimmers of hope come in the form of television programs that describe scientific and technical phenomena in an entertaining manner. Depending on the level and depth of explanations, the various programs are targeted at audiences ranging from primary school children to adults. In addition, for those interested, there must be challenges to further improve their scientific training. I therefore consider contests like “Jugend forscht” (Young People’s Research) in Germany or the International Chemistry Olympiad as very important tools in this regard.

To sum up, we should earnestly continue the discussions regarding what knowledge and content should form the integral part of the chemistry education from elementary school to Master degrees at universities and what content we should place less emphasis on or simply set aside. It is impossible to produce something like supermen in chemistry – the superchemists. Since the time of Georg Christoph Lichtenberg we know “Who only knows all about chemistry, cannot understand chemistry correctly.” But on the other hand: Isn't it better to be an expert idiot than a real idiot?

HISTORY OF PHARMACY

 

Pharmacy (from Greek ‘pharmakeia’- ‘use of drugs’, from ‘pharmakon’ – ‘drug’) is the health profession that links the health sciences with the chemical sciences, and it is charged with ensuring the safe and effective use of medication. The scope of pharmacy practice includes more traditional roles such as compounding and dispensing medications, and it also includes more modern services related to patient care, including clinical services, reviewing medications for safety and efficacy, and providing drug information. Pharmacists, therefore, are the experts on drug therapy and are the primary health professionals who optimize medication use to provide patients with positive health outcomes. The term is also applied to an establishment used for such purposes.

Muslim pharmacy

In the field of pharmacy, the first drugstores were opened by Muslim pharmacists in Baghdad in 754, while the first apothecary shops were also founded by Muslim practitioners.

The advances made in the Middle East by Muslim chemists in botany and chemistry led Muslim physicians to substantially develop pharmacology. Muhammad ibn Zakariya Razi (Rhazes) (865-915), for instance, acted to promote the medical uses of chemical compounds. Abu al-Qasim al-Zahrawi (Abulcasis) (936-1013) pioneered the preparation of medicines by sublimation and distillation. His Liber servitoris is of particular interest, as it provides the reader with recipes and explains how to prepare the 'simples' from which the complex drugs were compounded then generally used. Sabur Ibn Sahl (869), was, however, the first physician to initiate pharmacopoedia, describing a large variety of drugs and remedies for ailments. Al-Biruni (973-1050) wrote one of the most valuable Islamic works on pharmacology entitled Kitab al-Saydalah (‘The Book of Drugs’), where he gave the detailed knowledge of the properties of drugs and outlined the role of pharmacy and the functions and duties of the pharmacist. Ibn Sina (Avicenna), too, described no less than 700 preparations, their properties, mode of action and their indications. He devoted in fact a whole volume to simple drugs in The Canon of Medicine. Of great impact were also the works by al-Maridini of Baghdad and Cairo, and Ibn al-Wafid (1008-1074), both of which were printed in Latin more than fifty times, appearing as De Medicinis universalibus et particularibus by 'Mesue' the younger, and the Medicamentis simplicibus by 'Abenguefit'. Peter of Abano (1250-1316) translated and added a supplement to the work of al-Maridini under the title De Veneris. Al-Muwaffaq's contributions in the field are also pioneering. Living in the 10th century, he wrote The Foundations of the True Properties of Remedies, amongst others describing arsenious oxide and silicic acid. He made a clear distinction between sodium carbonate and potassium carbonate and drew attention to the poisonous nature of copper compounds, especially copper vitriol, and also lead compounds. For the story, he also mentions the distillation of sea-water for drinking.

Chinese Pharmacy

The beginnings of pharmacy in China are ancient. It stemmed from Chinese alchemy. Shennong is said to have tasted hundreds of herbs to test their medical value. The most well-known work attributed to Shennong is the The Divine Farmer's Herb-Root Classic. This work is considered to be the earliest Chinese pharmacopoeia. It includes 365 medicines derived from minerals, plants, and animals. Shennong is credited with identifying hundreds of medical (and poisonous) herbs by personally testing their properties, which was crucial to the development of traditional Chinese medicine.

Japanese pharmacy

In ancient Japan, the men who fulfilled roles similar to those of modern pharamacists were highly respected. The place of pharmacists in society was expressly defined in the Taiho Code (701) and re­stated in the Yoro Code (718). Ranked positions in the pre-Heian Imperial court were established; and this organizational structure remained largely intact until the Meiji Restoration (1868). In this highlystable hierarchy, the pharmacists - and even pharmacist assistants - were assigned status superior to all others in health-related fields such as physicians and acupuncturists. In the Imperial household, the pharmacist was even ranked above the two personal physicians of the Emperor.

Community pharmacy

A pharmacy (commonly the chemist’s in Australia, New Zealand and the UK; or drugstore in North America; retail pharmacy in industry terminology; or Apothecary, historically) is the place where most pharmacists practice the profession of pharmacy. It is the community pharmacy where the dichotomy of the profession exists – health professionals who are also retailers.

Community pharmacies usually consist of a retail storefront with a dispensary where medications are stored and dispensed. The dispensary is subject to pharmacy legislation; with requirements for storage conditions, compulsory texts, equipment, etc., specified in legislation. Where it was once the case that pharmacists stayed within the dispensary compounding/dispensing medications, there has been an increasing trend towards the use of trained pharmacy technicians while the pharmacist spends more time communicating with patients.

All pharmacies are required to have a pharmacist on-duty at all times when open. In many jurisdictions, it is also a requirement that the owner of a pharmacy must be a registered pharmacist (R.Ph.). This latter requirement has been revoked in many jurisdictions, such that many retailers (including supermarkets and mass merchandisers) now include a pharmacy as a department of their store.

Likewise, many pharmacies are now rather grocery store-like in their design. In addition to medicines and prescriptions, many now sell a diverse arrangement of additional household items such as cosmetics, shampoo, bandages, office supplies, candy, and snack foods.

Hospital pharmacy

Pharmacies within hospitals differ considerably from community pharmacies. Some pharmacists in hospital pharmacies may have more complex clinical medication management issues whereas pharmacists in community pharmacies often have more complex business and customer relations issues. Because of the complexity of medications including specific indications, effectiveness of treatment regimens, safety of medications (i.e., drug interactions) and patient compliance issues (in the hospital and at home) many pharmacists practicing in hospitals gain more education and training after pharmacy school through a pharmacy practice residency and sometimes followed by another residency in a specific area. Those pharmacists are often referred to as clinical pharmacists and they often specialize in various disciplines of pharmacy. For example, there are pharmacists who specialize in haematology/oncology, HIV/AIDS, infectious disease, critical care, emergency medicine, toxicology, nuclear pharmacy, pain management, psychiatry, anticoagulation clinics, herbal medicine, neurology/epilepsy management, paediatrics, neonatal pharmacists and more.

Hospital pharmacies can usually be found within the premises of the hospital. Hospital pharmacies usually stock a larger range of medications, including more specialized medications, than would be feasible in the community setting. Most hospital medications are unit-dose, or a single dose of medicine. Hospital pharmacists and trained pharmacy technicians compound sterile products for patients including total parenteral nutrition (TPN), and other medications given intravenously. This is a complex process that requires adequate training of personnel, quality assurance of products, and adequate facilities. Several hospital pharmacies have decided to outsource high risk preparations and some other compounding functions to companies who specialize in compounding.

Clinical pharmacy

Clinical pharmacists provide direct patient care services that optimize the use of medication and promote health, wellness, and disease prevention. Clinical pharmacists care for patients in all health care settings but the clinical pharmacy movement initially began inside hospitals and clinics. Clinical pharmacists often collaborate with physicians and other healthcare professionals. Clinical pharmacists are now an integral part of the interdisciplinary approach to patient care. They work collaboratively with physicians, nurses and other healthcare personnel in various medical and surgical areas.

Consultant pharmacy

Consultant pharmacy practice focuses more on medication regimen review (i.e. "cognitive services") than on actual dispensing of drugs. Consultant pharmacists most typically work in nursing homes, but are increasingly branching into other institutions and non-institutional settings. Traditionally consultant pharmacists were usually independent business owners. This trend may be gradually reversing as consultant pharmacists begin to work directly with patients, primarily because many elderly people are now taking numerous medications but continue to live outside of institutional settings. Some community pharmacies employ consultant pharmacists and/or provide consulting services.

Internet pharmacy

Since about the year 2000, a growing number of Internet pharmacies have been established worldwide. Many of these pharmacies are similar to community pharmacies, and in fact, many of them are actually operated by brick-and-mortar community pharmacies that serve consumers online and those that walk in their door. The primary difference is the method by which the medications are requested and received. Some customers consider this to be a more convenient and private method rather than traveling to a community drugstore where another customer might overhear about the drugs that they take. Internet pharmacies (also known as Online Pharmacies) are also recommended to some patients by their physicians if they are homebound.

While most Internet pharmacies sell prescription drugs and require a valid prescription, some Internet pharmacies sell prescription drugs without requiring a prescription. Many customers order drugs from such pharmacies to avoid the ‘inconvenience’ of visiting a doctor or to obtain medications which their doctors were unwilling to prescribe. However, this practice has been criticized as potentially dangerous, especially by those who feel that only doctors can reliably assess contraindications, risk/benefit ratios, and an individual's overall suitability for use of a medication. There also have been reports of such pharmacies dispensing substandard products. Of course, as history has shown, substandard products can be dispensed by both Internet and Community pharmacies, so it is best that the buyer beware. Of particular concern with Internet pharmacies is the ease with which people, the young in particular, can obtain controlled substances (e.g., Vicodin, generically known as hydrocodone) via the Internet without a prescription issued by a doctor/practioner who has an established doctor-patient relationship. There are many instances where a practioner issues a prescription, brokered by an Internet server, for a controlled substance to a ‘patient’ she/he has never met. In the United States, in order for a prescription for a controlled substance to be valid, it must be issued for a legitimate medical purpose by a licensed practitioner acting in the course of legitimate doctor-patient relationship. The filling pharmacy has a corresponding responsibility to ensure that the prescription is valid. Often, individual state laws outline what defines a valid patient-doctor relationship.

Canada is home to dozens of licensed Internet pharmacies, many of which sell their lower-cost prescription drugs to US consumers, who pay the world's highest drug prices. However, there are Internet pharmacies in many other countries including Israel, Fiji and the UK that serve customers worldwide.

The future of pharmacy

In the coming decades, pharmacists are expected to become more integral within the health care system. Rather than simply dispensing medication, pharmacists will be paid for their patient care skills. This shift has already commenced in some countries; for instance, pharmacists in Australia receive remuneration from the Australian Government for conducting comprehensive Home Medicines Reviews. In the United Kingdom, pharmacists (and nurses) who undertake additional training are obtaining prescribing rights. They are also being paid for by the government for medicine use reviews. Pharmaceutical care or Clinical pharmacy has had an evolving influence on the practice of pharmacy. Moreover, the Doctor of Pharmacy (Pharm.D.) degree is now required before entering practice and many pharmacists now complete one or two years of residency or fellowship training following graduation. In addition, consultant pharmacists who traditionally operated primarily in nursing homes are now expanding into direct consultations with patients, under the banner of ‘senior care pharmacy’.

 

 

PHARMACOLOGY

 

Pharmacology is the branch of medicine and biology concerned with the study of drug action. More specifically, it is the study of the interactions that occur between a living organism and chemicals that affect normal or abnormal biochemical function. If substances have medicinal properties, they are considered pharmaceuticals. The field encompasses drug composition and properties, interactions, toxicology, therapy, and medical applications and antipathogenic capabilities. The two main areas of pharmacology are pharmacodynamics and pharmacokinetics. The former studies the effects of the drugs on biological systems, and the latter the effects of biological systems on the drugs. In broad terms, pharmacodynamics discusses the interactions of chemicals with biological receptors, and pharmacokinetics discusses the absorption, distribution, metabolism, and excretion of chemicals from the biological systems. Pharmacology is not synonymous with pharmacy and the two terms are frequently confused. Pharmacology deals with how drugs interact within biological systems to affect function. It is the study of drugs, of the reactions of the body and drug on each other, the sources of drugs, their nature, and their properties. In contrast, pharmacy is a biomedical science concerned with application of the principals learned from pharmacology in its clinical settings; whether it is in a dispensing or clinical care role. In either field, the primary contrast between the two is their distinctions between direct-patient care, for pharmacy practice, and the science-oriented field, driven by pharmacology.

Dioscorides' De Materia Medica is often said to be the oldest and most valuable work in the history of pharmacology. The origins of clinical pharmacology date back to the Middle Ages in Avicenna's The Canon of Medicine and Peter of Spain's Commentary on Isaac. Clinical pharmacology owes much of its foundation to the work of William Withering. Pharmacology as a scientific discipline did not further advance until the mid-19th century amid the great biomedical resurgence of that period. Before the second half of the nineteenth century, the remarkable potency and specificity of the actions of drugs such as morphine, quinine and digitalis were explained vaguely and with reference to extraordinary chemical powers and affinities to certain organs or tissues. The first pharmacology department was set up by Rudolf Buchheim in 1847, in recognition of the need to understand how therapeutic drugs and poisons produced their effects.

Early pharmacologists focused on natural substances, mainly plant extracts. Pharmacology developed in the 19th century as a biomedical science that applied the principles of scientific experimentation to therapeutic contexts.

 

Divisions

• Clinical pharmacology

The medical field of medication effects on humans and animals.

• Neuropharmacology

Effects of medication on nervous system functioning.

• Psychopharmacology

Effects of medication on the brain; observing changed behavior of the body and reading the effect of drugs on the human brain.

• Pharmacogenetics

Clinical testing of genetic variation that gives rise to differing response to drugs.

• Pharmacogenomics

Application of genomic technologies to new drug discovery and further characterization of older drugs.

• Pharmacoepidemiology

Study of effects of drugs in large numbers of people

• Toxicology

Study of toxic or harmful effects of drugs

• Theoretical pharmacology

Study of metrics in pharmacology

• Posology

How medicines are dosed. It also depends upon various factors like age, climate, weight, sex, and so on.

• Pharmacognosy

A branch of pharmacology dealing especially with the composition, use, and development of medicinal substances of biological origin and especially medicinal substances obtained from plants also known as deriving medicines from plants.

Behavioral pharmacology

Behavioral pharmacology, also referred to as psychopharmacology, is an interdisciplinary field which studies behavioral effects of psychoactive drugs. It incorporates approaches and techniques from neuropharmacology, animal behavior and behavioral neuroscience, and is interested in the behavioral and neurobiological mechanisms of action of psychoactive drugs. Another goal of behavioral pharmacology is to develop animal behavioral models to screen chemical compounds with therapeutic potentials. People in this field (called behavioral pharmacologists) typically use small animals (e.g. rodents) to study psychotherapeutic drugs such as antipsychotics, antidepressants and anxiolytics, and drugs of abuse such as nicotine, cocaine, methamphetamine, etc.

Environmental pharmacology

Environmental pharmacology is a new discipline. Focus is being given to understand gene-environment interaction, drug-environment interaction and toxin-environment interaction. There is a close collaboration between the Environmental science and Medical community in addressing these issues. It is recognized that healthcare can itself be a cause of environmental damage as well as its remediation. Human health and ecology is intimately related. Demand for more pharmaceutical products is destroying countless species of animals and plants, placing the public at risk. The entry of chemicals and drugs into the Aquatic ecosystem is a more serious concern today. In addition, the production of some Illegal drugs pollutes drinking water supply by releasing carcinogens. The pharmaceutical industry is encouraged to pay greater attention to the environmental impact of its products. More and more biodegradable drugs are needed. It means environment friendly drugs could be designed. General standards for discharge of environment pollutants are implemented strictly and environmental impact assessment is checked frequently by health and other concerned regulators.

Scientific background

The study of chemicals requires intimate knowledge of the biological system affected. With the knowledge of cell biology and biochemistry increasing, the field of pharmacology has also changed substantially. It has become possible, through molecular analysis of receptors, to design chemicals that act on specific cellular signaling or metabolic pathways by affecting sites directly on cell-surface receptors (which modulate and mediate cellular signaling pathways controlling cellular function).

A chemical has, from the pharmacological point-of-view, various properties. Pharmacokinetics describes the effect of the body on the chemical (e.g. half-life and volume of distribution), and pharmacodynamics describes the chemical's effect on the body (desired or toxic).

When describing the pharmacokinetic properties of a chemical, pharmacologists are often interested in LADME:

• Liberation - disintegration (for solid oral forms {breaking down into smaller particles}), dispersal and dissolution

• Absorption - How is the medication absorbed (through the skin, the intestine, the oral mucosa)?

• Distribution - How does it spread through the organism?

• Metabolism - Is the medication converted chemically inside the body, and into which substances? Are these active? Could they be toxic?

• Excretion - How is the medication eliminated (through the bile, urine, breath, skin)?

Medication is said to have a narrow or wide therapeutic index or a therapeutic window. This describes the ratio of desired effect to toxic effect. A compound with a narrow therapeutic index (close to one) exerts its desired effect at a dose close to its toxic dose. A compound with a wide therapeutic index (greater than five) exerts its desired effect at a dose substantially below its toxic dose. Those with a narrow margin are more difficult to dose and administer, and may require therapeutic drug monitoring (examples are warfarin, some antiepileptics, aminoglycoside antibiotics). Most anti-cancer drugs have a narrow therapeutic margin: toxic side-effects are almost always encountered at doses used to kill tumors.

Drug legislation and safety

In the United States, the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) is responsible for creating guidelines for the approval and use of drugs. The FDA requires that all approved drugs fulfill two requirements:

1. The drug must be found to be effective against the disease for which it is seeking approval.

2. The drug must meet safety criteria by being subject to extensive animal and controlled human testing.

Gaining FDA approval usually takes several years to attain. Testing done on animals must be extensive and must include several species to help in the evaluation of both the effectiveness and toxicity of the drug. The dosage of any drug approved for use is intended to fall within a range in which the drug produces a therapeutic effect or desired outcome.

The safety and effectiveness of prescription drugs in the U.S. is regulated by the Federal Prescription Drug Marketing Act of 1987.

The Medicines and Healthcare products Regulatory Agency (MHRA) has a similar role in the UK.

Education

The study of pharmacology is offered in many universities worldwide in programs that differ from pharmacy programs. Students of pharmacology are trained as researchers, studying the effects of substances in order to better understand the mechanisms which might lead to new drug discoveries for example. Whereas a pharmacy student will eventually work in a pharmacy dispensing medications or some other position focused on the patient, a pharmacologist will typically work within a laboratory setting.

PLACEBO

The placebo effect can be produced by inert tablets, by sham surgery, and by false information, such as when electrical stimulation is turned "off" in those with Parkinson's disease implanted brain electrodes.

A placebo is a sham medical intervention that produces a placebo effect. In medical research, placebos depend on the use of controlled and measured deception. Common placebos are inert tablets, sham surgery, and other procedures based on false information. In one common placebo procedure, a patient is given an inert pill, told that it may improve his/her condition, but not told that it is in fact inert. Such an intervention may cause the patient to believe the treatment will change his/her condition; and this belief may produce a subjective perception of a therapeutic effect, causing the patient to feel their condition has improved. This phenomenon is known as the placebo effect.

Placebos are widely used in medical research and medicine, and the placebo effect is a pervasive phenomenon; in fact, it is part of the response to any active medical intervention. When used as treatment in clinical medicine (as opposed to laboratory research), the deception involved in the use of placebos creates tension between the Hippocratic Oath and the honesty of the doctor-patient relationship. The House of Commons of the United Kingdom Science and Technology Committee states that: "...prescribing placebos... usually relies on some degree of patient deception" and "prescribing pure placebos is bad medicine. Their effect is unreliable and unpredictable and cannot form the sole basis of any treatment on the NHS."

Since the publication of Henry K. Beecher's “The Powerful Placebo” in 1955 the phenomenon has been considered to have clinically important effects. This view was notably challenged when in 2001 a systematic review of clinical trials concluded that there was no evidence of clinically important effects, except perhaps in the treatment of pain and continuous subjective outcomes. The article received a flurry of criticism, but the authors later published a Cochrane review with similar conclusions. Most studies have attributed the difference from baseline till the end of the trial to a placebo effect, but the reviewers examined studies which had both placebo and untreated groups in order to distinguish the placebo effect from the natural progression of the disease.

Definitions, effects, and ethics

A placebo has been defined as "a substance or procedure... that is objectively without specific activity for the condition being treated". Under this definition, a wide variety of things can be placebos and exhibit a placebo effect. Pharmacological substances administered through any means can act as placebos, including pills, creams, inhalants, and injections. Medical devices such as ultrasound can act as placebos. Sham surgery, sham electrodes implanted in the brain, and sham acupuncture, either with sham needles or on fake acupuncture points, have all exhibited placebo effects. Bedding not treated to reduce allergies has been used as a placebo to control for treated bedding. The physician has even been called a placebo; a study found that patient recovery can be increased by words that suggest the patient "would be better in a few days", and if the patient is given treatment, that "the treatment would certainly make him better" rather than negative words such as "I am not sure that the treatment I am going to give you will have an effect". The placebo effect may be a component of pharmacological therapies: pain killing and anxiety reducing drugs that are infused secretly without an individual's knowledge are less effective than when a patient knows they are receiving them. Likewise, the effects of stimulation from implanted electrodes in the brains of those with advanced Parkinson's disease are greater when they are aware they are receiving this stimulation. Sometimes administering or prescribing a placebo merges into fake medicine.

The placebo effect has sometimes been defined as a physiological effect caused by the placebo, but Moerman and Jonas have pointed out that this seems illogical, as a placebo is an inert substance which does not directly cause anything. Instead they introduced the word "meaning response" for the meaning the brain associates with the placebo, which causes a physiological placebo effect. They propose that the placebo, which may be unethical, could be avoided entirely if doctors comfort and encourage their patients' health. Ernst and Resch also attempted to distinguish between the "true" and "perceived" placebo effect, as they argued that some of the effects attributed to the placebo effect could be due to other factors.

The placebo effect has been controversial throughout history. Notable medical organizations have endorsed it, but in 1903 Richard Cabot concluded that it should be avoided because it is deceptive. Newman points out the "placebo paradox", - it may be unethical to use a placebo, but also unethical "not to use something that heals". He suggests to solve this dilemma by appropriating the meaning response in medicine, that is make use of the placebo effect, as long as the "one administering... is honest, open, and believes in its potential healing power."

PLACEBO IN HISTORY

The word placebo, Latin for “I shall please”, dates back to a Latin translation of the Bible by Jerome. It was first used in a medicinal context in the 18th century. In 1785 it was defined as a “commonplace method or medicine” and in 1811 it was defined as “any medicine adapted more to please than to benefit the patient”, sometimes with a derogatory implication but not with the implication of no effect. Placebos were widespread in medicine until the 20th century, and they were sometimes endorsed as necessary deceptions. In 1903 Richard Cabot said that he was brought up to use placebos, but he ultimately concluded by saying that “I have not yet found any case in which a lie does not do more harm than good”. In 1961 Henry K. Beecher found that patients of surgeons he categorized as enthusiasts relieved their patients' chest pain and heart problems more than skeptic surgeons. In 1961 Walter Kennedy introduced the word nocebo.

Mechanism of the effect

The phenomenon of an inert substance resulting in a patient's medical improvement is called the placebo effect. The phenomenon is related to the perception and expectation which the patient has; if the substance is viewed as helpful, it can heal, but if it is viewed as harmful, it can cause negative effects, which is known as the nocebo effect. The basic mechanisms of placebo effects have been investigated since 1978, when it was found that the opioid antagonist naloxone could block placebo painkillers, suggesting that endogenous opioids are involved.

Some unintended effects of chemicals found in cosmetics

Unfortunately, sometimes the ingredients in cosmetics can have unintended side-effects. For example, skin allergies (allergic dermatitis) to specific ingredients can be a problem. Allergies to cosmetic products can be due to chemicals such as added fragrances and preservatives. This can lead to a skin rash where the product is applied. If you think you may be allergic to a cosmetic product, it is important to determine which ingredients may be causing the problem. A specialised allergy test, called a patch test, may be helpful in this. Chemicals causing the allergy can then be avoided by reading product labels. Other people, while not allergic to a specific ingredient, may nevertheless find that a product irritates their skin because it damages the outer layers - a condition known as irritant dermatitis.

Exfoliates and skin peels leave the skin underneath temporarily more vulnerable to sun exposure because they remove the outermost protective layer of dead skin cells. Over-washing of hair or skin with soaps and detergents can strip the skin's natural protective oily layer, resulting in dry and scaly skin. Alternatively, excessive use of make-up or oily moisturisers can block pores and aggravate acne.

More serious side effects have been suggested for certain cosmetic ingredients. For example, a recent study was published that linked breast cancer with deodorants. The focus of the study was on parabens, a class of chemicals commonly used as preservatives in deodorants and antiperspirants. While parabens were found in breast cancer tissue, the study did not establish that they were the source of the cancer nor did it identify underarm cosmetics as the source of the chemicals.

A recent US study found that many cosmetics and toiletries used worldwide contained chemicals that were either known cancer-causing agents (carcinogens) or were untested for their effect on human health. More research into the safety of cosmetic chemicals is needed.

 

 

SOLUBILITY

Solubility is the property of a solid, liquid, or gaseous chemical substance called solute to dissolve in a solvent to form a homogeneous solution. The solubility of a substance fundamentally depends on the used solvent as well as on temperature and pressure.

The extent of the solubility of a substance in a specific solvent is measured as the saturation concentration where adding more solute does not increase the concentration of the solution.

Solubility occurs under dynamic equilibrium, which means that solubility results from the simultaneous and opposing processes of dissolution and phase joining.

The solubility equilibrium occurs when the two processes proceed at a constant rate.

The term solubility is also used in some fields where the solute is altered by solvolysis. For example, many metals and their oxides are said to be "soluble in hydrochloric acid," whereas the aqueous acid degrades the solid to give soluble products.

It is also true that most ionic solids are degraded by polar solvents, but such processes are reversible. In those cases where the solute is not recovered upon evaporation of the solvent, the process is referred to as solvolysis. The thermodynamic concept of solubility does not apply straightforwardly to solvolysis.

In general, solubility in the solvent phase can be given only for a specific solute that is thermodynamically stable, and the value of the solubility will include all the species in the solution.

A popular aphorism used for predicting solubility is "like dissolves like". This statement indicates that a solute will dissolve best in a solvent that has a similar chemical structure to itself. This view is simplistic, but it is a useful rule of thumb. The overall solvation capacity of a solvent depends primarily on its polarity.

For example, a very polar (hydrophilic) solute such as urea is very soluble in highly polar water, less soluble in fairly polar methanol, and practically insoluble in non-polar solvents such as benzene. In contrast, a non-polar or lipophilic solute such as naphthalene is insoluble in water, fairly soluble in methanol, and highly soluble in non-polar benzene.

The solubility of one substance in another is determined by the balance of intermolecular forces between the solvent and solute, and the entropy change that accompanies the solvation. Factors such as temperature and pressure will alter this balance, thus changing the solubility.

The solubility of a given solute in a given solvent typically depends on temperature. For many solids dissolved in liquid water, the solubility increases with temperature up to 100 °C.

Solubility is of fundamental importance in a large number of practical applications, ranging from ore processing, to the use of medicines. Solubility is often said to be one of the ‘characteristic properties of a substance’.

The synthesis of chemical compounds, by the milligram in a laboratory, or