Evolution of translation theory in the U.S.A.

When we talk about American history of translation, we should think of the theories and names that emerged at its different periods. In fact, each era is characterized by specific changes in translation history, but these changes differ from one place to another. For example, the developments of translation in the western world are not the same as those in the our world, as each nation knew particular incidents that led to the birth of particular theories. So, what are the main changes that marked translation history in both the West and the our world?

For centuries, people believed in the relation between translation and the story of the tower of Babel in the Book of Genesis. According to the Bible, the descendants of Noah decided, after the great flood, to settle down in a plain in the land of Shinar. There, they committed a great sin. Instead of setting up a society that fits God's will, they decided to challenge His authority and build a tower that could reach Heaven. However, this plan was not completed, as God, recognizing their wish, regained control over them through a linguistic stratagem. He caused them to speak different languages so as not to understand each other. Then, he scattered them all over the earth. After that incident, the number of languages increased through diversion, and people started to look for ways to communicate, hence the birth of translation.

Actually, with the birth of translation studies and the increase of research in the domain, people started to get away from this story of Babel, and they began to look for specific dates and figures that mark the periods of translation history.

Later on, the translation of the Bible remained subject to many conflicts between western theories and ideologies of translation for more than a thousand years.

Moreover, these conflicts on Bible translation were intensified with the coming of the Reformation in the sixteenth century, when "translation came to be used as a weapon in both dogmatic and political conflicts as nation states began to emerge and the centralization of the Church started to weaken evidence in linguistic terms by the decline of Latin as a universal language."

Needless to say that the invention of printing techniques in the fifteenth century developed the field of translation and helped in the appearance of early theorists. For instance, Etienne Dolet (1915-46), whose heretic mistranslation of one of Plato's dialogues, the phrase "rien du tout" (nothing at all) that showed his disbelief in immortality, led to his execution.

In the eighteenth century, the translator was compared to an artist with a moral duty both to the work of the original author and to the receiver.

The nineteenth century was characterized by two conflicting tendencies; the first considered translation as a category of thought and saw the translator as a creative genius, who enriches the literature and language into which he is translating, while the second saw him through the mechanical function of making a text or an author known (McGuire) (5).

In the second half of the twentieth century, studies on translation became an important course in language teaching and learning at schools. What adds to its value is the creation of a variety of methods and models of translation. For instance, the grammar-translation method studies the grammatical rules and structures of foreign languages. The cultural model is also a witness for the development of translation studies in the period.

Nowadays, translation research started to take another path, which is more automatic. The invention of the internet, together with the new technological developments in communication and digital materials, has increased cultural exchanges between nations. This leads translators to look for ways to cope with these changes and to look for more practical techniques that enable them to translate more and waste less. They also felt the need to enter the world of cinematographic translation, hence the birth of audiovisual translation. The latter technique, also called screen translation, is concerned with the translation of all kinds of TV programs, including films, series, and documentaries. This field is based on computers and translation software programs, and it is composed of two methods: dubbing and subtitling. In fact, audiovisual translation marks a changing era in the domain of translation.

In short, translation has a very wide and rich history in the West. Since its birth, translation was the subject of a variety of research and conflicts between theorists. Each theorist approaches it according to his viewpoint and field of research, the fact that gives its history a changing quality.

Translator’s competence.

Many professional bodies have a code of professional conduct, like the Institute of Linguistics in the United Kingdom the German Federation of Translators developed a similar code of professional honor.

One of the first principles of translators’ behavior is objectivity and impartiality. A translator, or rather an interpreter, is a mediator of communication but not its active participant. He cannot take part in the discussion he translates. A translator is generally expected not to side with either party. If a speaker’s arguments seem weak to him, he must translate them as convincingly (or not) as does the speaker. The interpreter cannot correct the speaker even if he knows that the latter is evidently mistaken. In order to “wash his hands” of the wrong statement, the interpreter can stress that it is the speaker’s point of view: Какговориторатор… Neither vocal, nor facial expression should betray the interpreter’s thoughts and feelings. Generally speaking, interpreting involves a high level of neutrality and detachment.

The interpreter’s speech must be clear and distinct. He must not mumble and stumble. No matter what and how a speaker might be talking, the interpreter must be logical and grammatically correct. A sentence begun must be completed. There is a stereotype that well-respected participants speak according to the standard norms. Thus mistakes in translating will inevitably be attributed to the interpreter and not to the speaker.

It is recommended that the interpreter learn beforehand the names and positions of the communicators to avoid further troubles.

The interpreter is not responsible for the content of what he is translating. He cannot translate what was not said (though in informal situations, the interpreter may deviate slightly from this rule and, taking into account the difference in cultures, makes necessary comments.) Awareness of non-verbal communication will be of great help to the interpreter in any situation, though he is not obliged to translate gestures.

An interpreter must keep information from the talks confidential. When working at several negotiations concerning the same problem, the translator cannot make the participants understand that he is aware of some information on the problem.

An interpreter normally speaks in the first person singular; the third person deixis is employed when it is necessary to introduce the speaker, when the communicator speaks about the interpreter, or in informal situations with several participants. It is not recommended using in Russian the pronoun он / она - it is better to name a person (either in full name or with the courtesy title ‘господин /госпожа’.

The place of an interpreter depends on the type of ceremony. It is crucial that the interpreter hear and be heard well. In translating informal talks, the interpreter usually stands between the communicants, to the left of his chief. When translating officials, the interpreter is to the left and behind the official. At the conference, the interpreter can be at the podium, in the presidium, at a microphone. An interpreter can check with the speaker if he did not hear or understand something properly. But, of course, echoing questions should not be frequent, especially in translating official talks.

It is admissible, though not desirable, to interrupt very long utterances of a speaker. It is better to make an agreement with the speaker beforehand about the length of utterances s/he is going to speak. An interpreter should always have paper and pencil with him, ready to take notes.

An interpreter must be very punctual. He must be observant of the time and arrive on time. Negotiations cannot start without him. It is even desirable that the interpreter come a little earlier than appointed, because the participants may decide at the last moment to start the discussion earlier, or the interpreter’s help may be needed for discussing some problems before the talks.

An interpreter must work with modesty and dignity. He must avoid both over familiarity (even if he is on friendly terms with the negotiation participants) and servility towards the communicators. He must be self-assured: he knows that the worst translation is better than absence of one (the theory is disputable, however). He must not let the talks participants correct him and he should do everything to make them believe in his professional competence.

His manners must be reserved and official, the clothes neat and not garish.