Lexicological analysis of the text

The text under consideration/analysis is presumably a passage from the article written in Standard English. I have not noticed any Americanisms or features pointing to other regional varieties of English. The style is literary, though the text contains an example of a word belonging to colloquial style: a drop-out.

I. ETYMOLOGY       

From the point of view of etymology the text presents a certain interest. It abounds in borrowed words.

 There are earlier Latin borrowings such as school, line, border, bridge, Latin-French borrowings table, fortune, there are also words borrowed by many languages which became international words: global, migration, political, liberalise.

Among French borrowings there are completely assimilated Norman-French borrowings which are not felt as such: e.g. rich, country, and later French borrowings that are not completely assimilated: phonetically: e.g. police; graphically and phonetically: journey, restaurant).

The word paper  deserves a particular interest. It is derived from Fr. Papier, which, in its turn, comes from   Lat. papyrus, and the latter was borrowed from Greek (Gr. Papyrus). Thus, the source of borrowing (the language from which the word was taken into English) is French, and the origin of borrowing (the language to which the word may be traced) is Greek.

………………… (borrowings from other languages are analysed in the same way).

As far as native words are concerned, I can name the following examples of native words of the common Germanic word-stock : fast, the cognate of which may be found in Gothic (G. fest), all, having cognates in Gothic (all) and Old Norwegian (ON allr), death, old, water, world, roads and many more.

…………………. (other groups of native words).

An instance of etymological doublets can be exemplified by the word road: there is a pair of etymological doublets in the text: road - raid.  

 II. MORPHOLOGICAL STRUCTURE OF WORDS

For the morphemic analysis I have chosen the following words:

Most, nirvana – one-morphemic root words consisting of free morphemes,

 Details - a two-morphemic word consisting of a root morpheme detail and a derivational morpheme –s, used to form plural

                         Analysis into the immediate constituents. /See example from the lecture/

( un - gentlemanly

    Comparing the word with other utterances we recognize the morpheme un- as a negative prefix (compare unnatural, unfortunate, uncertain) and the morpheme gentlemanly. Thus at the first cut of the analysis we obtain the bound negative morpheme un- and the free morpheme gentlemanly.    At the second cut we obtain the following immediate constituents: the noun stem gentleman- which occurs in other utterances   and the suffix -ly with the meaning “having the quality of the person denoted by the stem” (compare womanly, masterly, soldierly). The third cut is an adjective stem gentle- (a similar pattern is observed in nobleman) and -man which may be classified as a semi-affix)

III. WORD BUILDING

Now I would like to analyse the ways of world building used in the text.

The word Impoverished is an affixational derivative consisting of four bound morphemes,- pover- is a derived stem, im- is a negative prefix of Romanic origin, -ish is a derivational verb-forming suffix, and –ed  is a functional suffix.

Another example of an affixational derivative – youngster( a root morpheme young-, and a semi-affix having a derogatory meaning –ster).

High-school is a simple compound. There seem to be no examples of derivational compounds in the text under consideration.

There are also words formed by means of other ways of word formation:

Conversion : started – a start, rain – to rain, to clear – clear, to drop out - a drop-out, back –to back- the back

IV. SEMASIOLOGY

Let’s move on to the level of semasiology.

In the text the following examples of semantic change may be found:

Widening (table, paper), narrowing, degradation, amelioration of meaning .

There is also a case of a semantic transfer, it can be demonstrated at the example of … (metaphor, metonymy, etc.).

 The text contains numerous polysemantic words:

Pool, papers, gap, good etc. Let’s consider lexico-semantic variants of the word table ( стол , таблица , пища , плато , доска .)

As far as homonymy is concerned, I can give the following homonymic pairs : rain – reign; these are homophones, according to another classification - partial lexico-grammatical homonyms since they coincide only in some forms: compare the paradigms rain –rains- rain’s – rains’ and reign- reigns- reigning- reigned).

to tear –a tear (is to be analysed in the same way),.

In the text we can find the following synonyms: Decide – be desperate to. These are stylistic synonyms.

Gap – line – border. This is an example of ideographic synonyms.

Horrendous –terrible – horrible – awful. These are ideographic synonyms  with a synonymic dominant awful. The synonymic pair horrendous – awful can serve as an example of stylistic synonyms (poetic - neutral).

 Also: Strangers- immigrants – foreigners – newcomers, misfortune – trouble – difficulty- misery.

ETYMOLOGICAL GLOSSARY*

 

 NATIVE WORDS

About (a -butan)

Above (a-bufan)

After (aefter)

All (eal), German all, ON allr

Any (aenis), German einige

Apple, German Apfel, Dutch appel, Danish aeble, Indonesian apel, Polish jablko, Russian яблоко

Arm (earm), German Arm, ON armr, Slav. ormo (рамо)

Ask (ascian), OHG eiskon, Russian искать

Bathe (baioan), German baden

Be (beon), German bi (n), Lat. fieri, Russian быть

Bear (beran), German (ge)-baren

Beard (beard), German bart, Lat. barba, Russian борода

Beast (beste), Lat. bestia

Become (be-cuman), German bekommen

Bed (bed), German Bett

Begin (be-zinnan), German beginnen

Behind (be-hindan), German hinten

Believe (be-lyfan), German glauben

Bind (bindan), German binden, Gothic bindan

Bird (brid), German Brut

Birth (ze-byrd), German Gerburt

Bite (bitan), German beiben

Bitter (bitor), German bitter

Blind (blind>blynd), German blind

Blood (blod),German Blut

Board (bord), ON boro, Dutch bord

Boat (bat), German boot

Body (bodiz),OHG potah

Bone (ban), German Bein

Book (boc), German Buch, Gothic boka, Lat. fagus, Greek phegos

Bread (bread), German Brot

Break (brecan), German brechen

Bright (beorht), ON bjartr

Broad (brad), German breit

 

 

* составлен на основе пособия М.С. Ретунской «10 семинаров по английской лексикологии». Учебно-методические материалы. – Нижний Новгород: НГЛУ            им. Н.А. Добролюбова, 2000.- 54 с.

 

 

Brown (brun), German braun

Burn (baernan), German brennen

Busy (bisiz), Dutch bezig

Buy (byczan), ON buggean, Gothic bindan

Can (cunnan) German konnen

Care (caru), Gothic kara-печаль

Child (cild)

Choose (ceosan), German keisen, Latin gustare, Greek geuein

Dare (durran), OHG turran

Dark (deorc), OHG tarch

Day (daez), German Tag, Gothic dags

Dead (dead), German tot, Gothic daups

Deep (deop), German tier, Gothic dius, Russian дух, душа

Do (don), German tun, Russian деть (<дъть)

Drink (drincan), German trinken, Swedish dricka

Dwell (dwellan), OHG twellen – медлить, мешать

Each (aelc), German jeglich(er)

Ear (eare), German Ohr, Latin auris, Russian ухо

Earnest (eornost), German ernst

Earth (eoroe), German Erde, ON jord

Eat (eatan), German essen, ON eta, Latin edere, Russian есть

Eight (eahta), German acht, Latin octo, Greek okto, Slav. осмь

End (ende), German Ende

Enough (ze-noz), Germ. genu

Even (aefen), German Aben(d)

Fair (faezer), OHG fagar, ON fagr

Fast (faest), German Fest

Father (faeder), German Vater, ON faoir, Gothic fadar, Latin pater, Greek pater, Sansckr. pitar

Fear (faer), German Gefahr

Feather (feoer), German Feder, Greek pteron, Russian птица

Feed (fedan), OHG fuoten

Feel (felan), German fuhlen

Fall (fyllan), German fallen

Find (findan), German finden

Finger (finzer), German Finger

Fire (fyr), German Feuer, Greek pur, Russian пиро-

First (fyrst), German Furst - князь

Fish (fisc), German Fisch, Gothic fiscs, Latin piscis

Five (fif), German funf, Latin quinque, Greek pente, Russian пять

Flat (flet),German Flotz - пол

Flesh (flaesc), German Fleisch, ON flesk - свинина

Flight (flyht), German Flucht - бегство

Float (flota), German Floss, fließen, Greek ple(w)ein), Russian плыть

Flood (flod), German Flut, Greek plotos - плавучий

Fly (fleozan), fliegen, OHG fljuga

Folk (folc), German Volk, ON folk

Follow (folzian), German folgen

Foot (fot), Germ. Fuß, Lat. pes, Greek pous, Russian - под

For (for), German vor (fur), Latin pro, Russian про

Forget (for-zytan), Gerrman vergessen

Forgive (for-zifan), German vergeben

Four (feower), German vier, Latin quattuor, Russian четыре

Free (freo), Germ. frei, Goth. freis

Friend (freond), Germ. Freund, ON frǽndi - родич, Russian - приятель

Frost (forst, frost), German Frost

Full (ful), Germ. voll, Goth. fulls, Lat. plenus, Russian - полный

Game (zamen), OHG gaman, ON gaman

Glad (zlǽd), Germ. glatt, Lat. glaber, Russian - гладкий

Glass (zlǽs), Germ. Glas

Go (zan), Germ. gehen

God (zod), Germ. Gott, ON guo, Goth. guo

Gold (ceald), ON kala, German kalt, Latin gelu

Gold (zold), Germ. Gold, Goth. gulo, Russian - золото

Good (zod), Germ. gut, ON goor, Goth. goos, Russian - годный

Grass (zrǽs), Germ. Gras

Great (zreat), Germ. groß

Green (zrene), Germ. grun

Greet (zretan), Germ. grußen, ON grotian

Grey (zrǽz), Germ. grau, On grar

Ground (zrund), Germ. Grund

Half (healf), Germ.Halb, ON halfr, Goth.halbs

Hand (hand), Germ Hand, Goth. handus, ON hond

Hard (heard), Germ.hart, ON haror, Greek.kratus

Harm (hearm), Germ.Harm, ON harmar

Have (habban), Germ. haben, ON hafa

He (he) Dutch he

Head (heafod), Germ Haupt, ON, haufoo, Goth. haubio

Health (haelou) спасение, Modern English - здоровье

Hear (hyran), Germ.horen, Goth. hausjan, Greek akouein; Russian - акустика

Heart (heorte), Germ.Herz, ON hjarta, Lat.cor, Greek kardia; Russian - сердце

Heaven (heofon), Germ.Himmel, ON himinn

Heavy (hefiz), OHG hefiz, ON hofugr

Hell (hel) Germ. Holle, Goth.halja

Help (helpan) Germ.helfen, Goth.hilpan

High (heah), Germ. hoch, ON har, Goth. hauhs, ON haugr, Russian - курган

Hold (healdan), Germ. halten, ON halda, Goth. haldan

Home (ham), Germ. Heim, ON heimr, Goth. haime

Honey (huniz), Germ. Honig, ON hunang

Hope (hopian), Germ. hoffen

Horse(hors), Germ.Ross (hros), ON hross

Hot (hat), Germ. heiß

House (hus), Germ. Haus, ON hus

Hundred (hund-red), Germ. Hundert, Russian  сто, Lat. centum, Greek (he)-katon, Sanskr. catam

Hunger (hunzor), Germ. Hunger, ON hungr

I (ic), Germ. ich, Goth. ik, Lat. ego, Russian - азъ(я)

Idle (idel), Germ. eitel

Kind (cyninz), German Konig, ON konungr, Russian князь

Know (knawan), Latin noscere, Greek gignoskein, Russian знать

Lady (hlǽfdize) - hlaf+dize - несящая хлеб; Gothic di an - месить

Land (land), Germ. Land, ON land, Goth. land

Laugh (hlyhhan), German lachen, Goth. hlahjan

Lay (leczan), Germ. legen

Learn (leornian), Germ. lernen

Leave (lǽfan), Germ bleiben, Goth (bi)-laibjan, ON leifa

Let (lǽtan), Germ. lassen, ON lata, Goth. letan

Lie (leozan), Germ. lugen, Russian - лъгати

Light (lecht), Germ. Licht, Lat. lux, Greek leukos, Russian - луч

Light (leoht), Germ. leicht, ON lettr, Goth. leichts

Like (lician), OHG lihhen, ON lika

Lip (lippa), Germ. Lippe, Swedian lapp, Lat. labia, Russian - лепет

Little (lytel), ON luttil, Dutch lutel, OHG luzzil

Live (libban), Germ. leben, ON lifa

Loaf (hlaf), Germ. Laib, Goth. hlaifs; Russian - хлеб

Long (lanz), Germ. lang, ON langr, Lat. longus

Lord (hlaford) - hlaf+weard - хранить хлеб

Loud (hlud), Germ. laut, Russian - слыть, слово, слух

Love (lufian), Germ. lieben

Man (man), Germ. Mann, ON maor

Many (maniz), Germ. manch, Russian - многий

May (mazan), Germ. mogen, Russian - мочь

Mean (mǽnam), Germ. meinen

Meat (mete), ON matr, Goth. mats

Meet (metan), ON moeta

Middle (middel), Germ. Mittel

Might (mihtiz), Germ. machtig

Mild (milde), Germ. mild, ON mildr

Milk (meolc), Germ. Milch, Goth. miluks

Mind (ze-mynd), Goth. gamunds, Russian память

Miss (mis), ON missir

Month (monao), Ger. Monat, Goth. meno s

Mood (mod), Germ. Mut, Goth. mo s

Moon (mona), Germ. Mond, Lat. mensis, Greek mens

Mother (modor), Germ. Mutter, Lat. Mater, Greek meter, Sanskr matar,

Mouse (mus), Germ. maus, Lat. mus, Russian мышь

Mouth (muo), , Germ. Mund, ON munnr, Goth. munos

Much (micel), Goth. mikils, Greek megas

Must (mob), Germ. mub

Naked (nacod), Germ nackt, Goth. naqa s, Russian нагoй

Name (nama), Germ. Name, Goth. namo, Lat nomen

Need (nyd), Germ. Not, ON nauor, Russian нужда

Needle (naedl), Germ. Nadel, ON nal

Neighbour (neah-ze-bur), Germ. Nachbar

New (niwe), Germ. neu, Lat. novus, Greek neos, Russ. новый

Night (niht), Germ. Nacht, Goth. nahts, Russian ночь, Lat. nox

North (noro), Germ . Nord

Nose (nosu), Germ. Nase, ON nos, Russian нос

Now (nu), Lat. nu(nc), Russian ны(не)

Often (oft), Germ. oft, Goth. ufta

Old (eald), German alt

One (an), German ein, Lat. unus, Gothic ains

Ought (azan) OHG eigan

Our (ure), Germ . unser

Over (ofer), Germ. uber, ober, Greek huper, ON yfir, Goth ufar

Own (azen), German eigen

Penny (penninz), Germ. Pfenig, ON penningr

Pull (pullian), Low Germ. pulen, Danish dial. pulle

Queen (cwen), Gothic gens, Greek gyne, Russian жена

Quick (cwic), Greek bios, Latin vivus, Russian живой

Read (rae-dan), Germ. raten, ON raoa

Ready (rae-de), ON greior, OHG reiti

Red (read), Germ. rot, ON rauor, Goth. rau s, Greek eruthros, Russian рдеть, Ukranian рудий

Rest (rest), Germ.  Rast, Goth. rasta

Ride (ridan), Germ. reiten, ON rioa

Right (riht), Germ. Recht, ON rettr, Lat. rectus

Ring (hrinz), Germ. Ring, ON hringr, Old Slav. Russian - круг

Road (rad), OHG reita, ON reio

Rock (roccian), ON rukkian, Danish rokke

Roof (hrof), ON hro, Russian - кров

Root (rote), ON rota, Lat. radix

Run (rinnan), Germ. rinnen, ON rinna

Rush (hryscan), Germ. rauschen - шелестеть

Sad (saed), Germ . satt, Latin sat(is), Russian сытый

Sand (sand), Germ. Sand, ON sandr

Sea (sae), Germ. See, ON saer, Goth. saiw

Shame (scamu), Germ. Scham

Sharp (scearp), Germ. Scharf

Sheep (sceap), Germ. Schaf

Shilling (scillingz), Germ. Schilling

Shine (scinan), Germ. scheinen

Shoot (sceotan), Germ. scheißen

Show (sceawian), Germ. schauen

Silly (saeliz), Germ. selig – блаженный

Song )sanz), Germ Sang

Sorry (sariz), Swedish sarig – больной

Soul (sawol), Germ. Seele

Thank ( ancian), Germ. danken, ON akka

There ( aer), Germ. da

Thick ( icce), Germ. dick

Thief ( eof), Germ. Dieb

Thing ( inz), Germ. Ding, ON ing

Think ( enkan), Germ. denken, ON ekka

Thousand (usend), Germ. tausend, Goth. usundi, Russ. тысяча

Three ( ri, ry, reo), Germ. drei, Lat. tres, Russ. три

Throw ( rawan), Germ. drehen

Under (under), Germ. unter, ON undir

Up (up), Germ. auf

Wake (wacan), Germ. wachen, ON vaka

Wander (wandrian), Germ. wandern

Ward (weard), Germ. Wart, ON wart

Was (were) - (wesan), Germ. ist, Greek esti, Sanskr. asti, Lat. sum, Russian - есмь

Wash (wascan), Germ. waschen

Watch (wǽccan), Germ. wachen

Water (wǽter), Germ. Wasser, Greek hudor, Lat. unda, Russian - вода

Way (wez), Germ. Weg, ON vegr

We (we), Germ. wir (uns), Lat. nos, Sanskr. nas, Russian - нас

Weapon (wǽpu), Germ. Waffe

West (west), Germ. West, ON vestr

Wet (waetan), ON vatr

Wheat (hwǽte), Germ. Weizen, Goth. hwaiteis, Germ. Weizen

White (hwit), Germ. weiß, ON hvitr, Russian - светлый

Whole (hal), Germ. heil, Goth. hails, Russian - целый

Wide (wid), Germ. weit

Widow (wuduwe), Germ. Wittwe, Lat. Vidua, Russian - вдова

Wife (wif), Germ. Weib, ON vif

Wild (wilde), Germ. wild, ON villr

Will (willan), Germ. wollen, Lat. velle, Russian - велеть

Win (winnan), Germ. gewinnen

Wind (wind), Germ. Wind, Lat. ventus, Russian - ветер

Winter (winter), Germ. Winter, Danish vinter

Wise (wise), Germ. Weise

Wonder (wundrian), Germ. wundern

Wood (wudu), OHG witu, ON vior

Word (word), Germ. Wort, Lat. verbum

Work (weorc), Germ. Werk, ON verk, Greek ergon<wergon

World (woruld), Germ. Welt

Wound (wund), Germ wunde

Write (writan), Germ. reißen, ON rita

Yard (zard), Germ. Gerte, Russian - жердь

Year (zear), Germ. Yahr

Young (zeonz), Germ. jung, Lat. juvencus, Russian - юный

 

                                                                                

 BORROWINGS

 

CELTIC ORROWINGS

 

Cart, cradle, dun, dale, bard, bog, fun, glib, shamrock, tory, cosy, glen, loch, mackintosh, plaid, reel, slogan, raid, whiskey, crowd, flannel, kick, wee, billy, bonny.

Winchester, Exeter, Glouscester, Salisbury, Stratford-on-Avon, Thames, Duncomb, Tornhill, Cardigan, Edinburgh, Lincoln.

                                     

EARLY  LATIN BORROWINGS

Street         mile           pound        cup            box

wall           acid           monger      dish           mint

pit             chest          inch           kettle         turnip

pea            pine           plum          poppy       radish

onion         mill            plant          chalk         copper

kitchen      linen          line            purple       sack

sock           candle        sponge       mule          dragon

elephant    ass             oyster        turtle         butter

cheese        chester       port           fountain     tower

mountain   wine                                                            

 

LATIN BORROWINGS OF THE 7^TH C.

Priest, bishop, monk, nun, candle, school, scholar, magistrate.

SCANDINAVIAN BORROWINGS

 

 Anger    bore       die         flake      happy    scant

bag        cake       dirt        flat         harsh     scold

band      clip        drag       fog         hip         scrape

bark       club       drown    freckle   hug        scream

bask      clumsy   egg         gape      kid         screech

big         cock       fast        gasp      law        scrub

bond      cosy       fellow    get         leg          shrill

booth     crawl     fidget     gift         loft         skate

bound    crook     fir          gloss      nag        ski

bow       cub        fit           guess     odd        skill

bulk       cut         fizz         gun        rag         skin

bunch    dash       flag        happen  rotten     skirt

sky        slave      snug       stern      take       their

them      they       thrust     till          ugly       want

window wing                                                                   

 

                                         LATIN BORROWINGS

OF  THE RENAISSANCE PERIOD

Abstract words

Major, minor, filial, moderate, intelligent, permanent, to elect, to create

Scientific terms

Data, status, phenomenon, philosophy, method

 

NORMAN-FRENCH BORROWINGS

 

Administrative terms

State, government, parliament, council, power.

Court, crown, council, empress, govern, reign, realm, sovereign, country, power, minister, parliament, people, nation, feudal, peer, baron, marquis, duke, prince.

Legal terms

Court, army, judge, justice, crime, prison

Just, judge, jury, suit, sue, summon, course, session, attorney, accuse, crime, traitor, damage, heritage, property, injury, case, marriage, prove, false, heir, defend, prison, robber, rich, poor, poverty, money, interest, rent.

Art and Architecture

Art, beauty, colour, image, design, figure, ornament, paint, arch, tower, pillar, column, aisle, choir, abbey, cloister, palace, castle, mansion.

Military terms

 army, war, soldier, officer, battle, enemy

Army, navy, peace, enemy, arms, battle, combat, siege, defense, retreat, soldier, guard, spy, captain, lieutenant, sergeant, danger.

Educational terms

Pupil, lesson, library, science, pen, pencil