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UNIT 8 THE RESTLESS CRUST
PART 1: OCEANIC CRUST 1. COMPREHENSION 1.1 Vocabulary
Pay attention to the pronunciation of the geographical terms and especially to the pronunciation of numbers
Pacific Ocean Marianas Trench
Mid-Atlantic Ridge Arctic Ocean
Atlantic Ocean Ascension Island
Mt. Everest Indian Ocean
97 per cent 7.5 per cent
71 per cent 8.5 per cent
12,400 ft. (feet) ≈ 3 700 m 650 ft. ≈ 200 m 11,500 ft. = 3 450 m 3,300 ft. ≈ 1000 m 10,000 ft. = 3000 m 37,000 mi. (miles) ≈ 60 000 km 35,840 ft. = 10 752 m 3300 ft. - 33 hundred feet
Pay attention to the bold terms and expressions in the text
to strip off | обнажать |
sheath | оболочка, покров |
plateau | плато |
peak | вершина горы, пик |
to submerge | погружать |
rim | край |
to descend | опускаться; нисходить |
slope | склон; крыло складки |
cleft | трещина; расселина |
turbid | мутный |
surroundings | окружение; среда |
mountain chain | горная цепь |
tableland | плоскогорье, плато |
Read the text «The Ocean Floor». Pay attention to the diagram. Fulfill the exercises after the text. (R.P – 8.1.1)
Oceans and their seas hold 97% of all surface water, and cover some 71% of
the Earth to an average depth of 12,400 ft. (3700 m). Stripping off this watery
sheath would reveal valleys, plateaus, peaks and plains. We show ten
features of the ocean floor.
Continental shelf - a continent’s true but submerged and gently sloping rim,
descending to an average depth of 650 ft. (200 m). Continental shelves
occupy about 7.5% of the ocean floor.
Continental slope - a relatively steep slope descending from the continental
shelf. Such slopes occupy about 8.5% of the ocean floor.
Submarine canyon - a deep cleft in the continental slope, cut by turbid river
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water flowing out to the sea.
Continental rise - a gentle slope below the continental slope.
Submarine plateau - a high seafloor tableland.
Abyssal plain - a sediment-covered deep-sea plain about 11,500-18,000ft
(3450-5400 m) below sea level.
Seamount - a submarine volcano 3300ft. (1000 m) or more above its
surroundings. Guyots are flat-topped seamounts that were once volcanic
islands.
Spreading ridge - a submarine mountain chain generally 10,000 ft. (3000 m)
above the abyssal plain. A huge system of such ridges extends more than
37,000 ft. (60000 m) through the oceans. The Mid-Atlantic Ridge surfaces in
places as volcanic islands such as Iceland and Ascension Island.
Trench - a deep, steep-sided trough in an abyssal plain. At 35,840 ft. (10752
m) below sea level (deep enough to drown Mt. Everest). The Pacific’s
Marianas Trench is the deepest part of any ocean.
Island arc - a curved row of volcanic islands, usually on the continental side
of a trench.
(Lambert “The Field Guide to Geology” 1988, Cambridge University Press)
Fig. 42 Ocean floor
EXERCISES
Fig. 43 Ocean areas and depths
Match the English term with the Russian one.
1. submarine canyon a. край
2. seamount b. островная дуга
3. sheath c. впадина; прогиб
4. peak d. склон
5. rim e. спрединговый хребет
6. trench f. покров
7. island arc g. мутный
8. trough h. подводное ущелье
9. slope i. морская гора
10. cleft j. вершина горы
11. spreading ridge k. желоб
12. turbid l. трещина
Match the terms with the definitions.
1. seamount a. a gently sloping rim
2. island arc b. relatively steep slope descending from the
continental slope
3. abyssal plain c. a deep cleft in the continental slope
4. continental rise d. a gentle slope below the continental slope
5. submarine plateau e. a high seafloor tableland
6. submarine canyon f. a sediment covered plain
7. spreading ridge g. a submarine volcano
8. continental shelf h. a submarine mountain chain
9. trench i. a deep trough in an abyssal plain
10. continental slope j. a curved row of volcanic islands
READING COMPREHENSION
DETAILED READING: Sea-floor spreading
Read the following text and fulfill the after-reading tasks. (R.P – 8.1.2,
8.1.3, 8.1.4)
Scarcely any ocean floor is more than 200 million years old. That long ago a single mighty ocean incorporating the Pacific surrounded one landmass. The land developed splits which widened into basins. The Arctic, Atlantic, and the Indian Oceans were created in this way.
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Sea floor is always being made and destroyed by a process called sea-floor spreading. Growth occurs where crust is thinned by molten rock rising from the mantle beneath, or tugged apart by older, thicker crust sinking in the mantle elsewhere. Stretching splits vast chunks of oceanic crust, but the gaps are plugged by molten rock that wells up from below. Basalt sticking to the edges of such rifts formed the Mid-Atlantic Ridge and other vast underwater mountain chains called spreading ridges. Each widens by up to 10 in. (25 cm) a year.
Scientists believe the detailed process goes like this. First, molten rock wells up from deep down in the upper mantle region called the asthenosphere. The upwelling molten mass partly melts the rocks around it to make the oceanic crust. Gravity pulls the ridge flanks down and sideways. The resulting tension opens two main cracks along the ridge. Between these cracks the ridge’s middle sinks to form a central rift valley. Molten rock wells up through main and lesser cracks, then cools and hardens to become new ocean floor. Injections of fresh molten rock keep this spreading outwards from the central rift.
As upwelling continues, the rifting process is repeated. In time, rows of parallel ridges creep outward from their starting point, gradually sinking down to form the ocean’s abyssal plains.
Meanwhile great cracks called transform faults cut across the central ridge at right angles, offsetting short, straight sections. (Lambert “The Field Guide to Geology” 1988, Cambridge University Press)
TERMS
to incorporate (to include/ to be part of)
landmass
a split
to create (to become)
to thin (away)
to occur (to happen)
growth (development)
molten (rock)
to rise from beneath (below)
to be tugged apart
stretch(-ing)
chunk
gap
to plug
to well up
to stick
spreading (ridge)
flank
upwelling
rift (valley)
injection
creep (outward)
transform fault
offset
to subside
tension
to sink
включать
суша
трещина, раскол
образовывать; создавать
выклиниваться
происходить
рост (развитие)
расплавленная (порода)
подниматься
тянуть с усилием (натяжение)
растягивать (растяжение)
кусок; глыба
зазор, промежуток, разрыв
закупоривать
изливаться
прилипать
спрединговый (хребет)
склон, фланг
излияние
рифт, рифтовая долина
внедрение, инъекция
сползание, оползание породы
трансформный разлом
смещение, сдвиг
оседать; опускаться
напряжение, растяжение
опускаться; погружаться
After - reading tasks.
3.1.1. Look through the text and pick out the terms, which have the
following definition.
1. to include / to be part of
2. stress that pulls a solid body apart
3. to fill up
4. a lump
5. insertion of sedimentary material into a crack
6. horizontal normal separation
7. downward movement
8. part of the continental crust above sea level
9. oceanic crust forms along the Mid-oceanic ridge and spreads out laterally
10. subsurface water is transported toward the surface
DISCUSSION (R.P – 8.1.5)
We’ll discuss the subject: «Plate tectonics in action». Pay attention to the words and expressions and pronunciation of some of the geographical names. Read the text, which will give you some necessary information. Use the earlier communicative formulas (Unit 7). Pay special attention to the questions, which will help you to underline what facts are more important. Use the diagrams – «Plate tectonics in action», «Tectonic plates». (R.P. 8.2.10, 8.2.11)
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Geographical Names
Eurasian Plate Indo-Australian Plate Nazca Plate
African Plate Pacific Plate South American Plate
Antarctic Plate North American Plate
restless | непрекращающийся, неугомонный |
jigsaw puzzle | картинка-головоломка, мозаика |
abutting | примыкающий, прилегающий |
diverging | расходящийся |
colliding | сталкивающийся |
slab | кусок, плита, блок |
tectonic plate | тектоническая плита |
coupled to | связанный / соединенный с |
rigid | устойчивый, твердый |
to ride upon | передвигаться / скользить по (поверхности) |
convection current | конвективный поток |
to shift | перемещать, сдвигать |
margin -constructive -destructive -conservative passive -active | -граница -конструктивная -деструктивная -консервативная -пассивная -активная |
lithosphere | литосфера |
zone -collision -subduction | зона -столкновения -субдукции |
spreading ridge | спрединговый хребет |
to dive down | погружаться, нырять |
to slide past | скользить мимо |
to spark off | вызывать, порождать |
boundary | граница, поверхность раздела |
permutation | изменение |
interlock | смыкаться |
EARTH’S CHANGING SURFACE
Our planet’s solid surface is a restless jigsaw of abutting, diverging and colliding slabs called plates (lithospheric plates). How plates behave forms the subject known as plate tectonics.
Each plate involves a slab of oceanic crust, continental crust, or both, coupled to a slab of rigid upper mantle. Collectively these plates make up the lithosphere. This rides upon the asthenosphere, a dense, plastic layer of the mantle. Heat rising through this layer from the Earth’s core and lower mantle seemingly produces convection currents that shift the plates above.
Plate activities produce three main kinds of plate margins.
• Constructive (divergent) margins are oceanic spreading ridges where new lithosphere is formed between two separating oceanic plates.
• Destructive (convergent) margins are oceanic trenches where an oceanic plate dives down below a (less dense) continental plate.
• Conservative (transform) margins are where two plates slide past each other and lithosphere is neither made nor lost.
PART 2: CONTINENTAL CRUST
Fig. 46 Mountain building
Mountain building is a complex process. Deep troughs of accumulated offshore sediment, volcanic rocks, bits of oceanic crust, and scrap s of foreign continents can all be swept against one continent and weld ed on as mountain ranges. Most of mountainous western North America consists of more than 50 suspect terrane s – mighty slabs of alien rock that independently rotated and migrated north along the western edge of North America.
Here are three major mountain-building processes. 1. Oceanic plate subduction below another oceanic plate – this process created the Aleutian Islands and other mountainous island arcs.
Island-arc orogeny
a. subducted oceanic crust
b. low outer island-arc of sediments squeez ed by subducting oceanic crust
c. inner island-arc of mountainous volcanoes produced by the “ bob bing up “
of light, subducted, melted oceanic crust and sediments.
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Cordilleran belt orogeny
a. island-arc (c) and continent (d) with offshore sediments (b) advance on
two plates, one subducting below the other.
b. collision squeezes and ruck s up sediments (b) between island-arc
volcanoes (c) and continent (d), producing a сordilleran mountain chain such
as the Andes.
c/d. the subduction zone is replaced by a new one.
Colliding continents
a. continents (d) advance on separate plates
b. collision rucks up marginal sediments (b) and the ocean shrink s.
c. the oceanic crust between is subducted and the two continents collide,
forming mountain ranges like the Alps / the Himalayas
(Lambert “The Field Guide to Geology” 1988, Cambridge University Press)
EXERCISES
READING COMPREHENSION
INFORMATIVE READING: How continents evolve You will read a passage, followed by questions about it. For each question, you need to select the one best answer A, B, C, or D to each question. Answer all the questions following the passage on the basis of what is stated/implied in the passage (R.P – 8.2.2, 8.2.4, 8.2.5, 8.2.6)
Close study of the rocks of continents reveals ancient cores with progressively younger rocks tacked on to their rims. Each core, or craton, originated as a microcontinent, possibly like this. Two converging, cooling,
horizontal currents in the mantle tugged on a tract of thin, early crustal rock then sank.
5This squashed and thickened that patch of crust. Its base bulged down and melted, releasing light material that punched up through the crust above. Such rock resorting could have formed the first small slabs of continental crust. Later, sea-floor spreading swept island arcs and sediments against microcontinents as mobile belts – belts of deformed and buckled rock. Accretion of this kind formed full-blown continents. 10About 5% of today’s continental crust had formed by 3.5 billion years ago, half by 2.5 billion years ago, most by 0.5 billion years ago. Once formed, continents are not immutable – they can be reworked, but not destroyed. Coalescing produced the supercontinent Pangea about 300 million years ago. Rifting later broke it up. Earth’s crust splits open above “hot spots” – fixed plumes of molten rock rising in the mantle.
15A plume formed the volcanic Hawaiian Islands by punching through the thin oceanic Pacific Plate passing over it. Plumes raise domes in the thick, rigid continental crust. A dome is liable to split in three as cracks grow outward from its top. Where three cracks widen, oceanic rock wells up into the spreading gaps.
20The continent is split apart and a triple junction then separates three lithospheric plates. If spreading happens only in two cracks, two plates form. The third crack becomes an abandoned trough or rift. Nigera’s Benue Trough and Ethiopia’s Afar Depression are two such so-called aulacogens. (Lambert “The Field Guide to Geology” 1988, Cambridge University Press)
1. What is the main purpose of the passage?
(A) to show how first slabs formed the continental crust
(B) to show how continents evolved
(C) to show how the Earth’s crust split
(D) to show how mobile belts deformed
2. Where in the passage does the author state how the continental crust was
formed?
(A) Lines 3-7
(B) Lines 10-14
(C) Lines 7-11
(D) Lines 18-22
3. It can be inferred from the passage that the phrase “hot spots” refers to:
(A) ash flow
(B) lava flow
(C) cooled magma
(D) molten rocks
4. According to the passage, today’s continental crust was formed
(A) 2.5 billion years ago
(B) 0.5 billion years ago
(C) 3.5 billion years ago
(D) 300 billion years ago
5. According to the passage, full-blown continents were formed by
(A) accretion
(B) depression
(C) subduction
(D) separation
6. The author of the passage implies that the formed continents are
(A) stable
(B) progressive
(C) spreading
(D) immutable
7. What was the necessary conditions for the formation of Pangea?
(A) resorting
(B) subducting
(C) coalescing
(D) converging
8. According to the passage, plumes
(A) raise domes in the continental crust
(B) push molten rocks in the mantle
(C) split the continent apart
(D) deform the rocks
LISTENING COMPREHENSION
DISCUSSION
(R.P – 8.2.7, 8.2.8, 8.2.9)
Diagrams).
Part 3 – main idea: check the student’s comprehension of the topic.
Part 4 – interpretive questions: requires the students to understand,
VOCABULARY
fault разрывное нарушение, дизъюнктивная
дислокация, разрыв, сброс;
faulting разрывообразование;
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discernible видимый, заметный;
orientation ориентация;
displacement смещение;
adjunct to приложение, дополнение;
dip наклон, падение;
fault plane плоскость разрывного нарушения,
сместитель;
strike простирание;
intersection пересечение;
azimuth азимут;
bearing простирание;
heave горизонтальная амплитуда смещения;
throw вертикальная амплитуда смещения;
oblique slip диагональное смещение;
hanging wall висячий блок (бок, крыло);
footwall лежачий блок (бок, крыло);
normal fault сброс;
reverse fault взброс;
strike-slip fault сдвиг со смещением по простиранию;
thrust fault надвиг
transcurrent / tear fault поперечный сдвиг;
right-lateral strike-slip правосторонний сдвиг;
fault (dextral)
left-lateral strike-slip fault левосторонний сдвиг; (sinistral)
obliquity скос, наклон;
triaxial stress field пространственное (трёхмерное) поле
напряжений.
WORD FORMATION
vary (v)-variable (adj)-variation (n)
oblique (adj)-obliquity (n)
fault (n)-faulting (n)
orient (v)-orientated (adj)-orientation (n)
scheme (n)-schematical (ly) (adj)
VERBS (+ PREPOSITION)
to move up – двигаться вверх;
to move down – двигаться вниз;
to move laterally over – двигаться по (направлению);
to move to – превращаться в; переходить к
to slide by – скользить;
to observe – замечать, наблюдать;
to be measured by – измерять(ся);
regardless of – независимо от;
to facilitate – способствовать;
(dip) at an angle – (падать) под углом в;
perpendicular to – перпендикулярно к;
to bear upon – опираться;
to emerge – возникать, выявляться, выясняться;
to result in – приводить к;
to involve in – включать в себя, возводить в степень;
to be responsible for – ответственный;
to orient along – ориентировать по, располагать вдоль.
Fig. 50 Fault anatomy
The hanging wall of a fault is located above the fault surface and bears upon it. The footwall of a fault is beneath the fault. It occupies the position beneath the fault regardless of whether the hanging wall has moved up or down.
Compression is usually responsible for reverse faulting where the hanging wall is moved up relative to the footwall. A reverse fault that dips 30 or less becomes a thrust fault.
Strike-slip faults occur where crustal blocks slide laterally by each other along nearly vertical zones of movement.
EXERCISES 1. Match the English term with the Russian variant. (TEXT: Fault 1. fault a. сдвиг 2. normal fault b. простирание 3. reverse fault c. висячий блок 4. throw d. косой, наклонный 5. heave e. сброс 6. hanging wall f. наклон, падение 7. footwall g. взброс 8. dip h. горизонтальная амплитуда смещения 9. strike i. лежачий блок
10. strike-slip fault j. вертикальная амплитуда смещения 11. oblique k. разлом, разрыв
2. Re-read the text “Fault terminology”. Look at the diagram (anatomy of a fault). Label the letters and give an explanation. (R.P – 8.3.1.2) Fig. 52 Fault types 6. Here are six definitions. Read the definition, then name the term and give its translation (R.P – 8.3.1.3, 8.3.1.4) 1. horizontal block raised between two normal faults 2. a long, narrow block sunk between two parallel faults 3. one block drops / rises against the other 4. horizontal shearing along a vertical fault plane 5. an uplifted, tilted block 6. one block is forced up and over another LISTENING COMPREHENSION Phrase. 1. What is another term for splits formed in stressed rocks? 2. What is a joint? 3. How do joints form? 4. Where do joints occur? 5. What are faults? 6. What explains the weakness in the Earth’s crust? 7. What does block faulting create? 8. How many types of faults are there? 9. What are the main types of faults? 10.When does a normal fault occur? 11.How is a reverse fault formed? 12.What forces create reverse faults? 13.What is an example of a tear fault? 14.What is the difference between graben and horst? WORD FORMATION fold (n) – folding (n) складка – складкообразование; associate (v) – association (n) ассоциировать – ассоциация. VERBS (+ PREPOSITION) to drape over – ниспадать складками; to precede – предшествовать; to manifest – проявляться, становиться явным; adjacent to – смежный, расположенный рядом; to converge upon – стремиться к пределу; to associate with – связывать с, ассоциировать с. Fig. 53 Fold terminology Fig. 54 Folding structure EXERCISES LISTENING COMPREHENSION DISCUSSION The topic of our discussion- Faulting and Folding. There are two groups. Each group discusses the following monitoring packet. The monitoring packet- consists of 4 parts. (R.P. – 8.3.1.4, 8.3.2.3, 8.3.1.1) Part 1 - checks vocabulary by means of reading comprehension Part 2- detail reading; questions that ask for specific details (using Diagrams) Part 3- main idea: checks the student's comprehension of the topic Part 4- interpretive questions; requires the students to understand, analyze And infer from the text.
WORDLIST PRONUNCIATION
TERMS
WORDS AND PHRASES
UNIT 8 THE RESTLESS CRUST PART 1: OCEANIC CRUST 1. COMPREHENSION 1.1 Vocabulary
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