Culture and its Major Components

Unit 1

Culture and its Major Components

Pre-listening Task

Culture and its major components

Today, in America, as in many Western coun­tries, Asian-born newcomers earn a high per­centage of awards and academic honours in mathematics and science. And topflight American research laboratories from Silicon Valley in California to Woods Hole in Massachusetts employ a high proportion of Asian-born scientists and engineers.

Why? Are Asians smarter than other people? Do they possess some fundamental secret to success that Westerners have somehow lost? Do Asians simply try harder?

Although the popular press at some point has responded “yes” to all of these questions, we, as students of sociology, need to debunk these relatively superficial explanations. A recent study tracked the academic success in the United States of over 500 school-age children of Southeast Asian “boat people”. The refugee children arrived know­ing little English, after having suffered harrowing experi­ences during their flight from Vietnam and Laos and having lost out on much school time. In spite of these obstacles, they soon were doing exceptionally well in mathematics and science in American schools.

One sociological explanation of the Asian students’ success in math and science can be found in the values they held. The researchers found a high correlation between the students’ achievement-oriented values and their academic success. Values vary from one society to another. What is taken for granted in one place or time may not be in another. Values are an important part of what is called culture, and the concept of culture is one of the most important ideas in the social sciences. It is to an examination of this concept that we now turn.

 

WHAT IS CULTURE?

 

Sociologists and anthropologists commonly define cultureas the shared products of a human group or soci­ety. These shared products include not only values, lan­guage, and knowledge but also material objects. The people of any group or society share nonmaterial culture — abstract and intangible human creations such as defini­tions of right and wrong, some medium of communica­tion, and knowledge about the environment and about ways of doing things. They also share material culture — a body of physical objects that reflect nonmaterial cultural meanings. Elements of material culture include tools, money, clothing, and works of art.

Although culture is shared, it must also be learned by each new generation through the process of social interaction. Thus, culture is passed on from generation to generation and accumulates over time.

In the most general sense, then, culture is the whole way of life of a people that is transmitted from one genera­tion to the next. Although the concept of “culture” is often used interchangeably with “society,” the two should not be confused. Strictly speaking, society refers to interacting people who share a culture, whereas culture is the product of that interaction. In reality, human society and culture cannot exist independently of each other (although dead societies leave behind cultural remains that are discovered by archeologists). Culture is created through people inter­acting, but human interaction takes its form through the sharing of culture.

 

1. Why do topflight American research laboratories from Silicon Valley in California to Woods Hole in Massachusetts employ a high proportion of Asian-born scientists and engineers?
2. What is a sociological explanation of the Asian students’ success in math and science? Why do they eclipse Americans?
3. Is there any correlation between the students’ achievement-oriented values and their academic success?

 

MAJOR COMPONENTS OF CULTURE

 

Symbols

The existence of culture depends on people’s ability to cre­ate and use symbols. A symbolis anything that a group of people have agreed upon as a way of meaningfully repre­senting something other than itself. All words and num­bers are symbols; so are a clenched fist, the American flag, and the cross. Human beings, unlike their primate ances­tors, can transmit extremely complex information to others—everything from “I love you” to technical data about the physical universe—and they can learn a great deal from the experience of others. Through sym­bols, we can make sense of reality and transmit and store complex information. In short, we can both create and learn from our culture.

Symbols are extremely important in helping us comprehend abstract concepts like “justice,” “patriotism” etc. Because such concepts are hard to under­stand, we often compare them to things we already understand. Thus, the ideals and sentiments underlying American system of laws are frequently represented by a blind­folded woman holding the scales of justice.

Although symbols are found in every culture, most specific symbols are associated with a particular culture. For example, the Chinese yin-yang symbol represents the two complementary forces of Earth and Heaven that comprise all aspects of life.

 

1. What is culture in the most general sense? What does it include?
2. Symbols are extremely important in helping us comprehend abstract concepts, aren't they? How? What symbols are mentioned in the article?

 

Language

Language, defined simply as human speech in both its spoken and written forms, is our most important set of symbols. Through it, the ideas, values, and norms of our culture find their most complete expression. Although we use many other media—painting, music, sculpture, and dance are examples—to express culture, only language is flexible and precise enough to convey all the complex subtleties that humans can understand.

In fact, without language, much of human thought would not be possible. Through language, children learn how their society understands the world, the past, and the future. They learn what is expected of them largely through the language of their parents, teach­ers, and friends. Language, therefore, is essential to social organization. It allows us to build and transmit culture more fully than any other system of symbols.

Finally, language can reflect cultural values. A study of English as spoken in Australia suggested that certain of its linguistic practices reflect the value placed by Australians on informality, good humor, and antisenti­mentality. Thus, the Australian tendency to shorten words and add an “ie” or a “y” to the end (for example, prezzie for present and matey for mate) can be seen as a way of expressing jocularity and easy friendship or famil­iarity without sentimentality.

 

1. How can language reflect cultural values?

Values

A valueis an idea shared by the people in a society about what is good and bad, right and wrong, desirable and undesirable. Values are general, abstract ideas that shape the ideals and goals of a society. They are usually emotionally charged and provide the basis of justi­fication for a person’s behavior.

The Asian-born refugee children mentioned at the beginning of this article were found to hold values that helped them to excel in math and science. One value of traditional Indochinese culture, and still transmitted from parent to child in the United States, is the central importance of the family. For example, homework is con­sidered a shared family obligation, with older children helping younger siblings and parents freeing children from household chores to allow them ample time to study. Typically, after dinner the table is cleared, and the family does homework at the table. The average time spent by Indochinese high school students on homework was three hours and ten minutes a night, compared to about one and a half hours for American students. Naturally, such an investment brings noticeable results.

Studies of other immigrant groups have found sim­ilar values at work. Indeed, middle-class Americans tradi­tionally emphasize educational achievement and hard work, just as Asians do, but Americans tend to feel that it is more the individual who does the achieving rather than the family.

The main values of a culture are passed on through its symbol systems. Values may be portrayed in folklore, mythology, art, entertainment, and any number of other media. Consider, for example, the English Arthurian leg­end, with its colorful cast of characters: King Arthur, Queen Guinevere, Sir Lancelot, Merlin, and dragons and other fabulous beasts. To this day, reading these stories allows us to admire the fatherly care bestowed by Arthur on his subjects. We approve of Lancelot’s bravery and loyalty, and we are fascinated by Merlin’s mysterious power and cleverness. These traits and others embody the values of medieval culture.

Like symbols, values do not exist in isolation. Rather, they relate to one another to form a unified pat­tern. In medieval society, the ideal of a fatherly king was consistent with the loyalty demanded of all the king’s subjects, who were encouraged to view themselves as members of a “family” rather than as individuals. Our contemporary stress on individualism would have been quite inconsistent with medieval English society’s values. Likewise, the value we place on profit-oriented economic life would have been quite foreign to medieval people united by “familial” bonds.

How do values relate to behavior? There are two con­flicting points of view on this issue. One the­ory holds that values mold behavior. Basic values, according to this theory, are absorbed early in a person’s life. Once they are fixed, they serve as a guide in choosing behavior and in forming attitudes.

This theory also holds that specific patterns of behavior evolve in a society because they are the logical outcome of its values.

The opposing theory gives much greater attention to the independent importance of behavior in creating values. This theory suggests that social habits develop naturally within societies over a period of time. To justify these habits, and perhaps also to hide the fact that they may be irrational, people in the society invent abstract explana­tions for them. In other words, values are a kind of after­thought—explanations by which the already ingrained habits of a society are shown to be desirable.

This theory can be applied to an American example of the free-market way of setting prices. Seen in this light, the American pricing system began in the context of a migra­tion to a rich and unclaimed country in which government was very weak. In practice, the best way for an individual to become successful was to charge as high a price as the mar­ket would bear. This became a habit in doing business, and the habit was later justified, both morally and socially, by inventing the value of economic freedom.

Both points of view seem valid, and it is not easy to choose between them. As in many controversies concern­ing theory, some truth exists on both sides. There is indeed a set of basic values that underlies every known society. On the other hand, values do not develop overnight. They are formed, reinforced, and changed through day-to-day behavior. In this sense, it is reasonable to assert that values are preceded by behavior and that, over time, behavior shapes values as much as val­ues shape behavior. In other words, the relationship between values and behavior is reciprocal.

 

1. How do particular values help Asian-born refugee children excel in math and science?
2. What values embody medieval culture?
3. Would our contemporary stress on individualism have been consistent with medieval English society’s values? Why?
4. How do values relate to behavior? What are two conflicting points of view on the issue?

 

Norms

Sociologists refer to expectations of how people are sup­posed to act, think, or feel in specific situations as norms.Norms can be either formal or informal. Formal norms have been written down or codified, often in the form of laws, and carry specific punishments for vio­lators. Informal norms are not written down but are widely understood by the members of a society. The most important norms are generally those shared by large seg­ments of society. For instance, most people in American society obey the norms that prohibit murder, robbery, and strolling through one’s neighborhood in the nude.

Most norms are concerned with the behaviors expected of people occupying specific social positions and playing specific roles, such as mother, man, employee, or date. A physician’s role in treating a patient, for example, consists of a set of norms. Doctors are expected to appear calm, stable, sympathetic, and respon­sible at all times

Although values and norms are closely related, the two should not be confused. Norms are specific, concrete, and situation-bound. They are usually expressed as behavioral guidelines: One should or should not act in a particular fashion. Values are general, and often serve as a standard by which norms may be judged. Our society, for example, values financial success. Certain norms govern the way we may seek to legiti­mately achieve that value—getting an education, starting a business and trying to make a profit, or obtaining a job and seeking promotions.

 

Folkways.

Norms vary greatly in their social importance. Many can be broken without serious conse­quence. For example, although men are currently expected to wear their hair relatively short, some still wear their hair very long or even in a ponytail. There are norms against such behavior, but they have little strength and may, within broad limits, be easily broken. Norms like these are called folkways, or social customs. Rules specifying expected table manners or other rules of etiquette provide another example.

 

11. Norms can be either formal or informal, can't they? What is the difference between them?

12. What norms and expectations are mentioned?

1. What is the difference between norms and values?

Some norms are almost considered sacred, and violating them is likely to result in serious con­sequences. When a person violates the norm against mur­der, his or her action will not be excused or overlooked on the grounds that it happened only once. The murderer will be punished. Strongly held norms that are considered essential and are strictly enforced (like the norm prohibit­ing murder) are called mores (pronounced MOR-aiz).

Mores can be either prescriptive or proscriptive. Prescriptive mores state what a person must do, such as care for infants and children who are unable to care for them­selves. Proscriptive mores state what a person must not do, such as break into other people’s homes. A particularly strong proscriptive more is a taboo. One proscriptive more that is a cultural universal is the incest taboo—a powerful moral prohibition against sexual relations between certain categories of relatives.

 

Laws.

Lawsare formal norms, usually mores that have been enacted by the state to regulate human con­duct. It is possible for an action to be illegal (against the law) but at the same time acceptable when judged by cer­tain informal social norms. For example, many people in the United States under the age of 21 drink alcohol. Although this behavior is technically illegal, the informal norms of society sometimes allow the law to be over­looked. Most police officers would not arrest a man who gives his 14-year-old son a sip of beer, and underage drinking has often been overlooked on college campuses as long as it goes on “behind closed doors.”

 

14. Strongly held norms that are considered essential and are strictly enforced (like the norm prohibit­ing murder) are called mores(pronounced MOR-aiz), aren't they?

Sanctions

If a society is to operate, it must have some way to enforce its norms. People must be made to conform, or behave in socially acceptable ways, even when it is hard or unpleas­ant for them to do so. Violation of the norms of a society is called deviance. Conformity is encouraged through the pressure of sanctions,a process known as social control. Sanctions can be either positive or negative. A positive sanction is a reward for behaving as expected and desired. A negative sanction is a punishment for violating significant norms.

Sanctions range from formal (those applied by a person or group in a position of authority) to informal (those applied by one’s friends or peers).

Extensive sanctions are usually not needed in everyday social behavior, however, precisely because most norms are accepted by members of society in the course of their upbringing. In fact, the crucial test of how well norms are functioning is the degree to which people fol­low them of their own free will.

Finally, it is important to add that it is not desirable that an individual or group obey the norms too consis­tently. Culture and society must be able to adapt to chang­ing conditions. Allowing some deviation from current norms may help keep a society flexible.

 

1. What is deviance?
2. What ways does a society have to enforce its norms?
3. How is conformity encouraged?

 

Material Culture

The physical objects that are typically found within a society—machines, tools, books, clothing, and so on— are called material culture. For many thousands of years, human beings have been using the elements of their nat­ural surroundings to increase their chances for survival and to enrich their lives. They have turned soil, trees, rocks, metals, animals, and other natural resources into shelter, tools, clothes, and forms of communication.

The nature of the material culture produced by a given society is a function of, among other things, the society’s level of technology, the resources available to it, and the needs of its people. Modern societies have access to minerals, enormous labor pools, and highly advanced technology. When we apply these material and nonmate­rial resources to the problem of transportation, for exam­ple, we produce cars, trucks, trains, airplanes, and other kinds of vehicles.

When archeologists dig up the remains of an ancient city, it is the material culture that they find: a bro­ken pot, a necklace carefully stored in a little wooden box, the foundations of a house. From these artifacts —articles made or used by humans—they are able to reconstruct some of the nonmaterial values and norms of the culture.

People create material culture and people can change it. But we can also think of developing material culture as a part of social life to which elements of non­material culture—norms, values, language, traditions, and the like—must adapt. For example, the invention of the automobile, which was condemned by early twentieth- century social critics as a “bedroom on wheels,” and the later introduction of the birth control pill have pro­foundly altered many aspects of American sexual norms and values. Similarly, advances in modern medical tech­nology have forced us to rethink many important ethical issues surrounding the question of when death actually occurs.

 

1. What does material culture consist of?

(based on David Popenoe Sociology)

LANGUAGE PRACTICE AND COMPREHENSION CHECK

 

Ex.3 Find English equivalents for the following words and word combinations:

1. мигранты выходцы из Азии

2. дети беженцев

3. недавнее исследование

4. общие ценности

5. определения добра и зла

6. понятие культуры

7. две дополняющие друг друга силы

8. различные средства

9. отеческая забота о подданных

10. было бы чуждо, несвойственно

11. разные модели поведения

12. противоположная точка зрения

13. прочно укоренившиеся привычки

14. народные обычаи

15. в более широких пределах (границах)

16. нравы, основанные на давнем обычае

17. девиантное поведение

18. остатки культуры

19. ценности отличаются

20. технически данные

21. обоюдные отношения

22. поведенческие нормативы

23. священные обычаи (нравы)

24. строго соблюдающиеся обычаи

25. табуированные, запретные обычаи

26. суровые санкции

Ex.4 Find Russian equivalents for the following words and word combinations:

1. to do exceptionally well in smth

2. to suffer harrowing experience

3. to pass culture on from generation to generation

4. to take something for granted

5. to hold values

6. to transmit extremely complex information

7. to be learned through the process of social interaction

8. to accumulate cultural values over time

9. to convey all the complex subtleties

10. to shape ideals and goals

11. to complement each other

12. to be emotionally charged

13. to be used interchangeably with smth

14. the logic outcome of society's values

15. to result in serious consequences

16. to regulate human conduct

17. to enforce norms

18. to conform norms

19. to be overlooked

20. to find a high correlation between smth

21. to store complex information

22. to comprise all aspects of life

23. to adapt to changing conditions

24. to comprehend abstract concepts

25. to provide the basis of justification

26. to bestow fatherly care

27. to allow somebody ample time for smth

28. to embody values

29. to be inconsistent with smth

30. to place value on profit-oriented economic life

31. to develop overnight

32. to write down formal normshave been written down or codified

33. to bring noticeable results

34. to obey the norms

35. to be situation-bound

36. to prohibit murder

37. to enforce mores

38. to be enacted by the state

39. to keep society flexible

Ex.5 Match words and word combinations with their definitions;

values (set of values, to hold values, to put/set/place high/low value on smth, to transmit values) culture (to share culture, nonmaterial culture/material culture) human interaction (social interaction) symbols norms (to follow norms, to violate norms, to enforce norms, to enact norms) individualism folkways mores laws (to obey the law, to break the law, to overlook the law) sanctions (to impose, apply, enforce sanctions against/on)) deviance

a) a thing that represents or stands for something else, especially a material object representing something abstract b) a standard or pattern, especially of social behaviour, that is typical or expected c) a social theory favouring freedom of action for individuals over collective or state control, a theory maintaining the political and economic independence of the individual and stressing individual initiative, action, and interests; also: conduct or practice guided by such a theory d) a set of ideas, beliefs, customs and ways of behaving that are shared and accepted by people in a particular society e) the principles and beliefs people have about what is right and wrong and what is most important in life, which influence and control the behavior of a particular group or community f) the traditional behaviour or way of life of a particular community or group of people g) the customs and behaviour that are typically found in that place or group. [FORMAL h) reciprocal action or influence, when two or more people communicate with or react to each other i) the system of rules which a particular country or community recognizes as regulating the actions of its members and which it may enforce by the imposition of penalties, The law is a system of rules that a society or government develops in order to deal with crime, business agreements, and social relationships. You can also use the law to refer to the people who work in this system. j) a threatened penalty for disobeying a law or rule k) the fact or state of diverging from usual or accepted standards, especially in social or sexual behavior, behaviour that most people do not consider normal or morally correct

Ex.6 Complete the following sentences using the above words:

1. As a traditional society they place a high_______________on family.

2. To its opponents in the developing world, globalization is seen as an attack on traditional cultural__________________.

3. America and Britain have so much in common, these societies ___________the same language and ________________.

4. Different games (including language ones) are usually intended to encourage _________________________________.

5. The Council wanted to _______________sanctions against the countries involved in the dispute.

6. Jobs that involve a degree of __________________are usually more satisfying.

7. The wheel in the Indian flag is ________________of peace.

8. The Berlin Wall was a potent __________________ of the Cold War.

9. Sport is often described as __________________of peace and a means of promoting fraternity between nations.

10. ___________________is the belief that the freedom of individual people is more important than the needs of society or the government,

11. ___________________are ways of behaving that are considered normal in a particular society.

12. There is a social_____________that says that drunkenness is inappropriate behavior in the society.

13. In this society people are required____________________, and there is no place for originality.

14. Should people do what they think is right even when it means___________________the law?

 

Ex.7 Complete the following table:

 

verb	noun	adjective
reflect	?	?
?	creation	?
depend	?	?
?	?	comprehensive
?	violation	?
?	behaviour	?
?	?	complementary
?	?	valuable
vary	?	?
?	share	?
?	?	Interactive
obey	?	?
?	deviance	?
?	transmission	?
conform	?	?

Ex.8 Complete the following sentences using the above words:

1. Failure ________________the law can lead to a large a fine.

2. Companies that ________________environmental law will be heavily fined.

3. Children learn pattern of social _________________ from their parents

4. If two or more people _________________, they communicate with one another, and react to one another, often while performing an activity together.

5. Alcohol _________________ creates lots of problems within the family units.

6. Such acts of social cruelty are beyond the ___________________ of most people.

7. Governments tend to seek __________________voter behaviour.

8. The government is to provide money for job _________________.

9. Americans have a very different set of __________________from our own.

10. They belonged to the community in which people respected their elders and ___________________their knowledge and experience.

11. American people ___________________ belief in the importance of gaining profits. Their lives are mainly profit-oriented.

12. Things that are ___________________combine well together or look attractive together, often because they have different qualities.

13. Social values are _______________ by example, not word of mouth.

 

Ex.9 Paraphrase the following statements by using synonyms or phrases with the same meaning.

1. They should debunk these superficial explanations.
2. They hold different values.
3. They pass their experience on to their children.
4. They put high value on nuclear family.
5. People are supposed to conform the rule.
6. Values vary from one society to another.
7. Culture accumulates over time.
8. Symbols help us to comprehend abstract concepts.
9. Language conveys all the complex subtleties that humans can understand.
10. One value of traditional Indochinese culture is still transmitted from parent to child.
11. Middle-class Americans tradi­tionally emphasize educational achievement and hard work.
12. These traits and others embody the values of medieval culture.
13. Values relate to one another to form a unified pat­tern.
14. Our contemporary stress on individualism would have been quite inconsistent with medieval English society’s values.
15. Behavior shapes values as much as val­ues shape behavior.
16. Certain norms govern the way we may seek to legiti­mately achieve some values.
17. Many norms can be broken without serious conse­quence.
18. Sacred mores are considered strictly enforced.

Ex.10 Change the form of the words by adding prefixes or suffixes so that the meaning becomes opposite:

1. approve
2. agree
3. understand
4. tangible
5. dependant
6. meaningful
7. flexible
8. precise
9. possible
10. formality
11. loyalty
12. desirable
13. consistent
14. rational
15. morally
16. legal
17. acceptable
18. pleasant
19. obedient

Ex.11 Insert suitable words from the above exercise (some words can be used more than once). Translate them from English into Russian.

1. This imbalance is___________________ with the principles of reciprocity, shared responsibility and mutual accountability upon which the United Nations Millennium Declaration and its Goals are based.

2. Higher management must, of course, reserve the power to approve or__________________those objectives.

3. No one would____________________about the dangers posed by landmines.

4. When critics__________________, the artist is in accord with himself.

5. Don't___________________ me.

6. The solutions proposed in the draft framework agreement were unjust,_____________________ and unrealizable.

7. Teach them how to think for themselves, how to evaluate evidence, and how to_____________________ with you.

8. You mustn't______________________ me.

9. Capital commitments represent expenses for purchases of fixed assets,_________________ assets or construction.

10. He and the president_____________________ on the Middle East.

11. He was used to these meetings and knew that____________________ was always the best approach.

12. The old__________________ and personal friendships may be hard to maintain in such an environment.

13. It may lead to_________________ toxic aftereffects.

14. In order to avoid any____________________ as to its equity and fairness of the system should be as transparent and clear as possible.

15. This situation is____________________ with the approach adopted by the Committee in its General Comment No. 3 (1990).

16. "On the other hand, we have no evidence that you've done anything__________________.

17. They emphasised that the demand for recognition of a separate state in the occupied part of Cyprus is________________.

18. Gambling is_________________ in Japan, except for some limited forms of public gambling such as horse racing, bicycle racing, and lotteries.

Ex.12 Fill in the gaps with the following words from the box:

rules reflect good or evil abstract concepts patriotism norms values

Values relate to the 1)__________________ of a culture, but they are more global and abstract than norms. Norms provide 2)________________ for behaviour in specific situations. Values identify what should be judged as 3)______________. While norms are standards, patterns, rules and guides of expected behaviour, values are 4)____________________ of what is important and worthwhile. Flying the national flag on a holiday is a norm, but it reflects the value of 5)___________________. Wearing dark clothing and appearing solemn are normative behaviours at a funeral. In certain cultures, norms 6) _______________the values of respect and support of friends and family. Different cultures reflect different 7) ____________________.

Ex.13 Read the following text and complete it by adding your own opinion.

Transmission

Values are generally received through cultural means, especially transmission from parents to children. Parents in different cultures have different values. For example, parents in a hunter-gatherer society surviving through subsistence agriculture value practical survival skills from a young age. Many such cultures begin teaching babies to use sharp tools, including knives, before their first birthdays. Italian parents value social and emotional abilities and having an even temperament. Spanish parents want their children to be sociable. Swedish parents value security and happiness. Dutch parents value independence, long attention spans, and predictable schedules. American parents are unusual for strongly valuing intellectual ability, especially in a narrow "book learning" sense.

Russian parents seem to value …

A box of useful phrases

Ex.14 Study the following phrases/ Learn them by heart.

1. strictly speaking

2. at some point

3. in short

4. to debunk superficial explanations

5. in spite of

6. conflicting points of view

7. it is to…we now turn

8. in the most general sense

9. it refers to

10. in fact

11. there are two conflicting views on this issue

12. the theory holds that

13. the theory suggests that

14. the theory can be applied to

15. seen in this light

16. in practice

17. in reality

18. in fact

19. the opposing theory

20. on the one hand…..on the other hand

21. finally

22. likewise

23. it is reasonable to assert

24. on the grounds that

25. both points of view seem valid

Ex.15 Read the following statements. Agree or disagree with them. Give your reasons for your agreement or disagreement. Use useful phrases from the above exercise.

1. The researchers found a high correlation between the students’ achievement-oriented values and their academic success.

2. Over the last three decades, people have shown an increased interest in personal well-being and a decreased interest in the welfare of others. Values seemed to have changed, affecting the beliefs, and attitudes.

3. Well-being or happiness is the individual judgment of the overall quality of one's life, the result of weighing one's mental and health state against one's aspirations and expectations. Happiness has been said to be a too complex phenomenon to understand, or a too personal one. We are simply born happy or unhappy: the Irish are dead optimistic by nature and the Russians just chronically murky. (From Atlas of European Values, Chart of Happiness)

4. The dominant values in the Soviet society were hard work, pursuit of knowledge and moderation. Recently the economic system has emphasized individualism, hedonism, the belief that personal pleasure is the highest good. People now find themselves in great conflict with respect to the older values of hard work and moderation and new ones.

5. The good society is one in which each person is actively working for the common good.

 

Ex.16 Read and translate the following text.

Common core American values

A culture's values are its ideas about what is good, right, fair, and just. Sociologists disagree, however, on how to conceptualize values. Conflict theory focuses on how values differ between groups within a culture, while functionalism focuses on the shared values within a culture. For example, American sociologist Robert K. Merton suggested that the most important values in American society are wealth, success, power, and prestige, but that everyone does not have an equal opportunity to attain these values. Functional sociologist Talcott Parsons noted that Americans share the common value of the “American work ethic,” which encourages hard work. Other sociologists have proposed common core American values, including accomplishment, material success, problem-solving, reliance on science and technology, democracy, patriotism, charity, freedom, equality and justice, individualism, responsibility, and accountability.

Ex.17 What common core Russian values would you propose?

Ex.18 Read the text, fill in the gaps with suitable prepositions.

What are “American Values”?

According to Datesman, Crandall and Kearney in their leading book on American values, The American Ways, “what binds Americans from all backgrounds and races together is a sense of national identity.” They name six basic American values that 1)­­­­­­_______________of American national identity. Additionally, you’ll note that the values often relate to or build upon each other. In any society, values are often intertwined.

1. Individual Freedom.

This is also called “individualism” or the right 2)_____________ your own destiny. This freedom is the basis of American identity and is manifested in 3)________________of American culture: freedom of religion, freedom of speech, and freedom of press, to name a few. Individual freedom also underscores family structure.

2. Self-Reliance.

This is sometimes interpreted as personal responsibility. One must be self-reliant to maintain his or her individual freedom, and one must also 4) _______________for his or her actions. The expression: “stand on one’s own two feet” comes from this essential American value. Americans are expected 5) ______________care of themselves and 6)_______________ their own problems. If someone does not appear self-reliant they 7) _______________of those around them.

Also, if one does not take responsibility for one’s actions (mistakes), one 8) ______________losing respect as well.

3. Equality of Opportunity.

This value prescribes an equal opportunity for success despite anyone’s 9)__________________, upbringing or socio-economic situation. This value connects to self-reliance and individual freedom. Everyone has 10) ___________________to control his or her own destiny (individual freedom), so everyone is expected to be self-reliant about achieving success.

4. Hard Work.

This is also known as “work ethic.” Only through hard work can one 11)__________________. This value very much supports the value of Equality of Opportunity. While everyone has 12) ____________________to succeed in the United States, it is up to each person to work hard and acquire his or her own success.

5. Competition.

This value is seen as the means by which individual freedom, equality of opportunity and hard work 13)___________________. One must compete with others in order to succeed, so competition protects the freedom of the individual by ensuring that there is 14)____________________, particularly in business.

This idea begins in early childhood with playing competitive sports; one must compete to win. Both competition itself and winning (through hard work and honesty) are 15) ______________and admired in American culture. Americans respect 16) _____________________and expect success to be acquired through competition and hard work, not birth.

6. Material Wealth.

This value is more than mere “materialism.” While wealth 17) _______________social status, an important component of this status is that it is seen as the natural reward to hard work. While some see it as the “rags to riches” story, it is important to note that this story was 18) _________________on the idea of going from impoverishment to living a comfortable middle class life – not acquiring extreme wealth.

Moreover, there are a few 19) _________________that are offshoots to these six values that Americans identify with implicitly and recognize as values: the underdog, individualism within the family, and time management.

According to Charles H. Webb, professor of English at California State University/Long Beach, “The United States began as a nation of underdogs, and 20) __________________of rooting for the ‘little guy.’ This value ties into the concepts of equal opportunity and the work ethic. Underdogs must have the opportunity…to improve their lot.”

Some sociologists explain that Americans’ desire for freedom from outside control clearly extends to the family; they don’t like to have controls 21) _________________by other family members. They want to make independent decisions. What would be best for the family is not usually considered to be as important as what would be best for the individual. Americans view the family as a group whose primary purpose is 22) _________________of individual members. The result is that the needs of each individual 23) __________________in the life of the family.

 

Finally, “time,” for the average American, is 24)__________________. In the words of Dr. L. Robert Kohls, Director of International Programs at San Francisco State University, “Schedules, for the American, are meant to be planned and then followed 25)_____________________. American English is filled with references to time, giving a clear indication of how much it is valued. Time is something to be "on," to be "kept," "filled," or "saved,"

that can be "used," "spent," "wasted," "lost," "gained," "planned," "given," "made the most of," or even "killed."

Unit 1

Culture and its Major Components

Pre-listening Task