Соотнесите английские словосочетания к их русскому эквиваленту, пользуясь текстом и электронным словарем.

Смирнова Е.В.

Шишкина Н.А.

 

LAW TERMS IN ENGLISH

ПРАКТИКУМ ПО УСВОЕНИЮ ЮРИДИЧЕСКОЙ ЛЕКСИКИ

НА АНГЛИЙСКОМ ЯЗЫКЕ

 

для студентов направлений подготовки

40.03.01 Юриспруденция

40.05.01 Правовое обеспечение национальной безопасности

40.05.02 Правоохранительная деятельность

 

 

Тольятти 2015

 

PART I

VOCABULARY PRACTICE

UNIT I.

Ex. 1. Match the following expressions with their equivalents: A) English with Russian, B) Russian with English

A.

1. to prosecute offender	a. устаревший закон
2. public scrutiny	b. первое/второе чтение
3. Human Rights Act	c. отменить закон
4. criminal prosecution	d. Верховный Суд
5. obsolete law	e. сфера действия права
6. judge	f. общественное рассмотрение
7. first/second reading	g. закон о правах человека
8. to repeal law	h. преследовать правонарушителя
9. High Court	i. уголовное преследование
10. field of law	j. судья

B.

1. внешняя политика	a. to be elected
2. особые полномочия, юрисдикция	b. legislation
3. доказательство	c. eventual decision
4. гражданин	d. to be elected
5. окончательное решение	e. hierarchy of the courts
6. общественный орган	f. jurisdiction
7. быть избранным	g. foreign policy
8. иерархия судов	h. evidence
9. быть выбранным	i. citizen
10. законопроект	j. public body

Ex. 2. Choose the right definition of the following terms:

1. A branch of law which is concerned with persons, corporations, property and relationships

a. private

b. substantive law

c. family law

d. public law

2. Upper house of UK Parliament

a. chamber

b. House of Commons

c. House of Lords

d. elected body

3. An agreement between countries

a. law

b. Constitution

c. Assembly

d. Convention

4. A request at court for compensation or for protecting rights

a. act

b. law

c. claim

d. action

 

Ex. 3. Make up sentences with the following words:

1. the UK, there are, jurisdictions, three, in.

2. primary legislation, in, and, secondary legislation, the UK, there are,.

3. between, more, the distinction, important, criminal, and, civil law, is.

4. are elected, they, by majority.

5. it, at the second reading, happens.

6. their experience, different titles, depending on, training, judges, have, and, level.

7. citizens, all, before, are equal, the law.

 

UNIT 2.

Ex. 1. Match the following expressions with their equivalents: A) English with Russian, B) Russian with English

A.

1. petty crime	a. убийство
2. common law	b. наркобизнес
3. hear the evidence	c. вред, ущерб
4. sentence	d. истец
5. harm	e. мелкое правонарушение
6. circuit judge	f. правовая система
7. homicide	g. заслушать показания
8. plaintiff	h. окружной судья
9. legal system	i. приговор
10. drug dealing	j. общее право

B.

1. обвинять в	a. legal practice
2. суд по делам несовершеннолетних	b. consumer complaint
3. юридическая практика	c. prosecute
4. дело о банкротстве	d. Сrown court
5. услуги	e. youth/juvenile court
6. присяжные	f. сharge with
7. травма	g. bankruptcy case
8. жалоба потребителя	h. services
9. королевский суд	i. jury
10. преследовать в судебном порядке	j. injury

Ex. 2. Choose the right definition of the following terms:

1. Period of time when Parliament discussed idea of passing new act

a. to pass an Act

b. a consultative process

c. legislative process

d. to enforce

2. Association of people who tries to influence the legislative process in their own interest

a. voluntary organization

b. professional body

c. government ministers

d. pressure group

3. Common law is…

a. a unified system of precedents, the total for the whole of Britain, one of the components of the Anglo-Saxon legal system based on local customs and practiced by the royal courts.

b. hierarchy of the courts in the UK.

c. the Human Rights Act of 1988.

Ex. 3. Make up sentences with the following words:

1. new legislation, is, enacted, how?

2. and, consists of, the common law, procedural rules, the substantive law.

3. deal with, petty, crimes, the Magistrate’s Courts.

4. it, and, rights, liabilities, defines, duties.

5. the court, life peers, consists of, and, of the House of Lords, appointed, twelve, from, judges, barristers.

6. trial, in, by the Normans, was brought, to England, by jury, 1066.

7. the hierarchy, the common law, is, essential to, of the courts, in the UK.

UNIT 3.

Ex.1. Match the following expressions with their equivalents: A) English with Russian, B) Russian with English

A.

1.legal aid	a. расследовать преступление
2. cross-examination	b. воровство
3. investigate a crime	c. правовая помощь
4. indictable offence	d. coглашение
5. will	e. решение суда
6. convention	f. признавать себя виновным
7. assent	g. санкция
8. plead guilty	h. перекрестный допрос
9. theft	i. завещание
10. judicial decision	j. преступление, преследуемое по обвинительному акту, подлежащее уголовному наказанию

B.

1. осуждение	a. detain
2. обязанность	b. prison
3. задержать	c. criminal
4. обеспечивать	d. liability
5. требование	e. conviction
6. вызов, повестка в суд	f. duty
7. ответственность	g. claim
8. тюрьма	h. provide
9. иск	i. summon
10. преступник	j. requirement

Ex. 2. Choose the right definition of the following terms:

1. Legal system is…

a. an interpretation of law.

b. a set of rules, institutions and industry rights in their relationship.

c. statements of law.

2. Judicial decision is…

a. a resolution of the specific law court for the concrete case.

b. a legal procedure

c. an interpretation of law

3. Precedent is…

a. a resolution of the specific law court for the concrete case which has the source of power

b. is a legislation

c. procedural rules

Ex. 3. Make up sentences with the following words:

1. are, assault, indictable offences, drug dealing, such as, theft, and, serious ones, murder.

2. as comfortably, to live, every country, to provide, that, its people, laws, safely, and, tries, will help, as possible.

3. is, the examination, of a witness, cross-examination.

4. compensation, the legal text, injuries, deals with, for, bodily.

5. any, a judicial decision, can get, accused person.

6. of, is regarded, as a father, Cesare Lombroso, to be, of, the scientific study, criminals.

7. to make, if, you, consult, your will, a lawyer, want.

 

UNIT 4.

Ex.1. Match the following expressions with their equivalents: A) English with Russian, B) Russian with English

A.

1. monetary sum	a. неплатежеспособность
2. make an order	b. встречный иск
3. judgement	c. вступить в силу
4. witness	d. денежно-кредитная сумма
5. insolvency	e. нарушение условий контракта
6. practicing lawyer	f. выплата по долгам
7. come into force	g. предъявить ордер
8. breach of contract	h. свидетель
9. counterclaim	i. судебное решение
10. debt repayment	j. практикующий юрист

B.

1. процессуальное право	a. litigation
2. частное право	b. claim form
3. подробные сведения (отчет)	c. right
4. публичное право	d. commit a crime
5. право (гражданина)	e. procedural law
6. развод	f. private law
7. тяжба, судебный процесс, спор	g. constitutional law
8. бланк заявления	h. public law
9. совершить преступление	i. particulars
10. конституционное право	j. divorce

Ex. 2. Choose the right definition of the following terms:

1. Stipendiary is

a. a member of House of Lords

b. a full-time paid magistrate who has qualified as a lawyer

c. a student who receives scholarships

2. Lay magistrate is

a. unpaid member of the local law community

b. a barrister

c. a judge

3. Circuit is

a. an administration of a Youth Court

b. a criminal division of the Court of Appeal

c. a geographical division for legal purposes

4. Recorder is

a. a part-time judge with ten years standing as a barrister or solicitor

b. one of juries

c. a magistrate of the Magistrates’ Court

 

Ex. 3. Make up sentences with the following words:

1. who, commit,are, persons, criminals, crimes.

2. came into force, in 2014, rules, only, these.

3. a secretary, a claim form, ask, about.

4. concerning insolvency, breach of contract, aren’t investigated, and, in this court, the cases.

5. the study, of basic laws, constitutional law, is, of nation states, and, other political organizations.

6. am sure, there were, some, I, witnesses.

7. equal rights, the law, have, before, all citizens.

 

UNIT 5.

Ex. 1. Match the following expressions with their equivalents: A) English with Russian, B) Russian with English

A.

1. tribunal	a. правительство
2. citizenship	b. таможенный союз
3. human rights	c. публичный
4. economic integration	d. квота
5. public	e. вторичное законодательство
6. frontier	f. права человека
7. government	g. экономическая интеграция
8. customs union	h. гражданство
9. secondary legislation	i. орган правосудия, трибунал
10. quota	j. граница

B.

1. профессиональное мастерство	a. corporation
2. консультант правовед	b. measure
3. проект документов	c. have a right of audience
4. частные фирмы	d. international law firm
5. ордер, приказ	e. regulation
6. корпорация	f. professional skills
7. мера	g. draft documents
8. международная юридическая фирма	h. private firms
9. постановление	i. legal adviser
10. иметь право голоса	j. warrant

Ex. 2. Choose the right definition of the following terms:

1. Witness is

a. a person who does not like a crime

b. a person who guesses that this or that

c. a person who has committed a crime

d. a person who saw or heard something about the offence

2. Alibis are

a. a system of circumstantial evidences

b. incontestable proofs of innocence of the suspected person

c. a Swiss cheese Grade

d. a gastric illness

3. Burglary is

a. a secret plunder of somebody’s property

b. a murder for the purpose of a body plunder

c. an institute of witnesses’ protection

d. an irrational use of napkins

Ex. 3. Make up sentences with the following words:

1. the power of the monarch, Magna Carta, established, of limited government, where, the principle, was limited.

2. this person, is not, eighteen, a right of audience, because, doesn’t have, he, yet.

3. decide, obligations, and, of private citizens, the rights, tribunals,.

4. of law, regulations, one of the sources, are, in any country.

5. the European Convention of Human Rights, the UK, signed up.

6. in, Mr.Green, to allow, officers, after refusing, was arrested, without a warrant.

7. works, in a private firm, he, as a legal adviser.

UNIT 6.

Ex. 1. Match the following expressions with their equivalents: A) English with Russian, B) Russian with English

A.

1.unlimited liability	a. условный приговор
2. assistant solicitor	b. временный судебный запрет
3. pickpocket	c. неограниченная ответственность
4. life imprisonment	d. председательствующий в суде
5. legal person	e. управление автомобилем в нетрезвом состоянии
6. suspended sentence	f. помощник поверенного
7. probation officer	g. карманник
8. on the Bench	h. должностное лицо, осуществляющее надзор за условно осужденными
9. interim injunction	i. пожизненное заключение
10. drunk-driving	j. юридическое лицо

B.

1. профессиональная ответственность	a. sister firm
2. юрист; адвокат	b. tax
3. правовой, юридический	c. lawyer
4. существенные инвестиции	d. court
5. налог	e. relevant expertise
6. дочерняя фирма	f. identification procedure
7. процедура идентификации	g. significant investment
8. суд	h. professional indemnity
9. судебное разбирательство, слушание дела	i. legal
10. соответствующая экспертиза	j. trial

Ex. 2. Choose the right definition of the following terms:

1. Appellant is

a. a victim

b. a judge

c. a person who appeals

2. Defendant is

a. a person working in the court

b. a person protecting a society

c. a person making laws

d. a person charged with a crime

3. Witness is

a. a life-sentence prisoner

b. a person committing a crime

c. a convicted prisoner

d. a person who saw or heard something about the offence

4. Plaintiff is

a. a person who protests

b. a party who begins an action, complains

c. a person who uses a magic power

d. one from whom a person is descended or sues

Ex. 3. Make up sentences with the following words:

1. a special law, taxes, are regulated, prices of goods, by, and.

2. to the court, a case, unfair dismissal, could be considered, of.

3. in crowded places, a pickpocket, a person, steals, things, who, from people’s pockets, is.

4. one of the sources, regulations, are, of law, in any country.

5. Helsinki, in, three, ago, John, worked, years, a sister firm, in.

6. under, the supervision, are, a lot of, accused persons, of, a probation officer.

7. the judge’s area, is, the Bench of the Court.

UNIT 7.

Ex. 1. Match the following expressions with their equivalents: A) English with Russian, B) Russian with English

A.

1. employee	a. убийство с заранее обдуманным умыслом
2. murder	b. ответственность за
3. profit	c. осуждение
4. bargain	d. расследование
5. offence	e. служащий
6. investigation	f. долги
7. responsibility for	g. отношение
8. condemnation	h. прибыль
9. debts	i. нарушение, проступок
10. relation	j. сделка

B.

1. предприятие	a. sole trader
2. товарищество, партнерство	b. trading certificate
3. регистрационный номер	c. shareholder
4. частная компания с ограниченной ответственностью	d. articles of association
5. разрешение на торговлю	e. partnership
6. акционер	f. bailiff
7. устав акционерной компании	g. assets
8. единоличный торговец	h. Private Limited Company
9. активы, капитал, фонды	i. registered number
10. судебный исполнитель	j. enterprise

 

Ex. 2. Choose the right definition of the following terms:

1. Claimant is

a. a plaintiff

b. a military man

c. a state prosecutor participating in judicial session

d. an employee of a security company

2. Monetary value is

a. a secret plunder of smb's property

b. an object of the world representing gold-currency

c. an institute of witnesses protection

d. an irrational use of napkins

3. Counterclaim

a. claim presented by a defendant in opposition to the claim of the plaintiff

b. a document for reviewing a case in the Higher court

c. a judgment about guiltiness and innocence of a person

d. a document about privileges for somebody

Ex. 3. Make up sentences with the following words:

1. in the investigation, bad mistakes, were made, a few.

2. a common form, partnership, for certain kinds, of business, is, of structure.

3. quite different, to the police, the relation, is.

4. was accepted, a trading certificate, last month.

5. who, someone, shares, as a shareholder, owns, is known,.

6. of the business, was, a person, was responsible for, who, all the debts, he.

7. bankruptcy, on the verge, this company, is, of.

UNIT 8.

Ex.1 atch the following expressions with their equivalents: A) English with Russian, B) Russian with English

A.

1. loan	a. ссуда под недвижимость
2. personal responsibility	b. рыночная стоимость
3. par value	c. уголовное преступление
4. defaulting company	d. торговая палата
5. permission	e. трудовой контракт
6. mortgage	f. заем
7. criminal offense	g. номинальная стоимость
8. Companies House	h. личная ответственность
9. employment contract	i. компания не соблюдающая обязат-ва
10. market value	j. разрешение

B.

1. смертная казнь	a. allowance
2. спор по гражданским делам	b. tax exemption
3. уплата налога	c. tax policy
4. денежное пособие	d. financial state of a company
5. уклонение от уплаты налогов	e. tax-relief
6. декларация (возврат налога)	f. tax return
7. освобождение от налогов	g. civil dispute
8. скидка на налог	h. tax-avoidance
9. налоговая политика	i. capital punishment
10. финансовое состояние компании	j. tax payment

Ex. 2. Choose the right definition of the following terms:

a. Legal system is

a. statements of law

b. a set of different institutions

c. interpretation of law

b. Cite case is

a. a reference to a case

b. a procedural rule

c. a legislation

3. Dismissal is

a. a special expertise

b. discharge from office

c. a witness statement

Ex. 3. Make up sentences with the following words:

1. a first legal charge, over the property, is, a mortgage.

2. the court’s decision, may be fined, by, the defaulting company.

3. has, the director of the company, for company’s deals, personal responsibility.

4. of, tax payment, the responsibility, is, all companies.

5. and, tax return, of income, is, for declaration, a form, allowance.

6. Interchangeable, are, and, the words, «loan agreement», «loan contract».

7. the early nineteenth century, in, capital punishment, was widespread.

UNIT 9.

Ex.1. Match the following expressions with their equivalents: A) English with Russian, B) Russian with English

A.

1. tax benefits	a. поглощение (путем приобретения ценных бумаг), слияние компаний
2. forfeiture	b. деликтное право
3. stock market	c. истец
4. information gathering	d. законное оправдание
5. claimant	e. гражданское производство
6. tort law	f. сбор информации
7. lawful justification	g. налоговые льготы
8. market investigation	h. конфискация
9. merger	i. изучение (исследования) рынка
10. civil proceeding	j. рынок ценных бумаг

B.

1. потребитель	a. slander
2. насилие	b. financial loss
3. похититель людей	c. trespass
4. клевета, кляуза (в письменном виде)	d. defamation
5. клевета (в СМИ)	e. negligence
6. клевета (в устной форме)	f. consumer
7. финансовые потери	g. nuisance
8. нарушение общественного порядка	h. forcible injury
9. злоупотребление	i. kidnapper
10. халатность, небрежность, невнимательность	j. libel

 

Ex. 2. Choose the right definition of the following terms:

1. Directives are

a. The power to govern

b. Citizenship

c. Special rules binding on member states but not individuals until they have been transposed into national law

2. Recommendations are

a. Laws for everybody

b. Binding on those to whom they are addressed

c. Persuasive, that is, have influence

3. Decisions are

a. Human rights

b. Goods

c. Binding on there to whom they are addressed

Ex. 3. Make up sentences with the following words:

1. was accused, ex-director, with forfeitures, of, his company.

2. in, to be, happened, a good specialist, he, the market investigation.

3. had, one, the largest regional building firm, of,a great financial loss.

4. his, in theft, defamed, neighbor, him.

5. clinical negligence, specialize, in, at a regional firm, David Jones,.

6. than, during, were mergered, more, twenty, companies, the last three years, by this foreign concern.

UNIT 10.

Ex.1. Match the following expressions with their equivalents: A) English with Russian, B) Russian with English

A.

1. tort	a. ответчик
2. mental disability	b. ошибочный, неверный, правонарушение
3. wrong	c. аренда
4. medical records	d. умственная неспособность (недееспособность)
5. lease	e. договор продажи (покупки)
6. contract law	f. договор о найме
7. sales agreement	g. соглашение о продаже в рассрочку
8. defendant	h. медицинская документация
9. a hire contract	i. контрактное право
10. a hire purchase agreement	j. гражданское правонарушение, деликт

B.

1. договор личного найма (трудовой договор)	a. delay
2. встречная оферта	b. vendor
3. поставка	c. parties concerned
4. заинтересованные стороны	d. counter offer
5. цена	e. delivery
6. жертва	f. terms of the agreement
7. продавец (недвижимости), риелтор	g. price
8. условия юридического соглашения	h. service contract
9. долг, связанный с азартной игрой	i. victim
10. отсрочка	j. gambling debt

Ex. 2. Choose the right definition of the following terms:

1. Will

a. a paper about leaving your property to somebody

b. suggestion

c. contract

d. partnership form

2. Experience

a. regulations

b. skills

c. rules

d. test

3. Barrister

a. trainee

b. Business man

c. legal person

d. supervisor

4. Privatization

a. taking to property

b. leaving to somebody

c. instructing a client

d. practicing as a solicitor

Ex. 3. Make up sentences with the following words:

1. is, breach of contract, a civil wrong, that, excludes, a tort.

2. the terms, both parties, tried, to keep, of the agreement, concerned.

3. to be delivered, was unlikely, to the defendant, the claim.

4. as a vendor, my, sister, works.

5. but, gambling debts, Mr. Smith, always, gambled, had, never.

UNIT 11.

Ex. 1. Match the following expressions with their equivalents: A) English with Russian, B) Russian with English

A.

1. warranty	a. навязывать, возлагать
2. void contract	b. заявление, сообщение фактов
3. clause	c. невиновная сторона
4. pre-condition	d. разрыв контракта
5. Transfer Deed	e. условие контракта
6. impose on	f. недействительный договор
7. representation	g. документ о передачи права собственности
8. discharge of contract	h. гарантия
9. term of a contract	i. клаузула (статья в договоре)
10. innocent party	j. предварительное условие

B.

1. предложение (оферта)	a. principal
2. поставка товаров	b. purchaser
3. предприниматель	c. licensor
4. шеф, начальник	d. licensee
5. поставщик	e. offer
6. лицензиат	f. supply of goods
7. покупатель	g. trainee
8. лицензиар	h. entrepreneur
9. стажер, практикант	i. supplier

Ex. 2. Choose the right definition of the following terms:

1. Draft

a. form

b. project

c. legal system

d. court

2. Trainee

a. a person who practices in professional activity

b. a person who graduate in a nonlaw subject

c. a lay client

d. a member of Inn

3. A Bachelor of laws

a. a scientific degree

b. a badge of a law student

c. a name of a law subject

d. a qualifying law degree

4. Litigation

a. an advocacy training

b. a questioning

c. a trial

d. a shop-lifting

Ex. 3. Make up sentences with the following words:

1. to break, a warranty, the other party, as discharged, doesn’t permit, the contract.

2. for sale, this, is, offered, object.

3. under this act, of unfair terms, the country, the use, imposed on, of a contract.

4. with licensors, licensees, many firms, who, work, and, there are.

5. it, a purchaser, some product, sells, and, buys, a supplier.

6. for, this, trainees, non-academic society, educational resources, provides of high quality, its.

UNIT 12.

Ex. 1. Match the following expressions with their equivalents: A) English with Russian, B) Russian with English

A.

1. copyright law	a. печать, пломба
2. breach of copyright	b. лицензионное соглашение
3. law firm’s Real Estate	c. пролонгация договора
4. insurance of the property	d. арендодатель
5. license agreement	e. авторское право
6. freeholder	f. арендатор
7. approval	g. страхование собственности
8. seal	h. агентство недвижимости
9. tenant	i. нарушение авторского права
10. renewal of the lease	j. одобрение

B.

1. работник	a. patent office
2. оплата труда	b. Employment law
3. отпуск по уходу за ребенком	c. copyright protection
4. неполный рабочий день	d. sick pay
5. заявление, форма заявления	e. employment tribunal
6. защита авторских прав	f. parental leave
7. трудовое право	g. wage
8. патентное бюро	h. application
9. пособие по болезни	i. employee
10. суд низш.инстанци по труд.спорам	j. part-time employment

Ex. 2. Choose the right definition of the following terms:

1. Lawyer

a. a wide nonspecific group of people who share some of the same background and culture

b. a professional who practices law

2. Act

a. the petition of people

b. the decree of a state body

3. The bargain

a. business contract between somebody

b. relations of people

Ex. 3. Make up sentences with the following words:

1. when buying, of packaging, pay attention, to the seal, any expensive devices.

2. everybody, a license agreement, demanded, for this service.

3. to this institute, there were, a hundred applicants.

4. fields, artistic, intellectual property, or, such as, literary, dramatic, deals with, musical, copyright law.

5. procedure, employment law department, contracts, employment policy, and, advise on, our.

6. the statutory rights, time off, holidays, include, a national minimum wage, and, and, of employees, statutory sick pay, parental leave.

UNIT 13.

Ex.1. Match the following expressions with their equivalents: A) English with Russian, B) Russian with English

A.

1. intellectual property	a. закон о товарных знака
2. country code	b. мошенничество с кредитной картой
3. money laundering	c. несанкционированный доступ
4. illegal activity	d. санкционированное использование
5. Internet access	e. экологическое право
6. Trade Marks Act	f. отмывание денег
7. authorized use	g. код страны
8. credit card scam	h. интеллектуальная собственность
9. environmental law	i. противозаконная деятельность
10. unauthorized access	j. доступ в Интернет

B.

1. в рамках закона	a. domestic law
2. нападение	b. legal practitioner
3. бесплатный	c. treaty
4. изнасилование	d. jail
5. соглашение (конвенция)	e. within legal framework
6. измена	f. free of charge
7. закон, действующий внутри страны	g. rape
8. наемный убийца	h. assault
9. правовед-практик	i. treason
10. тюрьма	j. assassin

 

Ex. 2. Choose the right definition of the following terms:

1. Terrorism

a. violent actions for political reasons

b. politics and rules of vandals

2. Tort

a. a criminal offence

b. a civil wrong

3. Defamation

a. a wrong statement about someone in mass media

b. a wrong statement about someone in oral speech

4. Nuisance

a. an acceptance of social customs or practice

b. break rules of behavior in public

Ex. 3. Make up sentences with the following words:

1. its own country code, every country, has.

2. free of charge, the Internet access, isn’t.

3. to International Laws, have to, all domestic laws, correlate.

4. illegal activity, your, will be punished.

5. some notes, a partner, her trainee, to draft, has asked, on environmental law.

6. within legal framework, the treaty, of the environmental protection, was signed.

7. specializing, information technology, a legal practitioner, in, at the meeting, was speaking.

PART II

READING PRACTICE

TEXT 1. WHAT IS LAW?

The word law has many meanings, and this word is used variously in different fields. For example, physical science has its law of gravity, and economics has the law of supply and demand. Do these laws have precise definitions? Is the same precision possible in jurisprudence – the scientific study of law? Over the years, legal scholars have offered dozens of definitions of law, but none of them is universally accepted as absolutely definitive. How can this difficulty in defining law be explained?

The English word law refers to limits upon various forms of behaviour. Some laws are descriptive: they simply describe how people, or even natural phenomena, usually behave. An example is rather consistent law of gravity; another is the less consistent law of economics. Other laws are prescriptive – they prescribe how people ought to behave. For example, the speed limits imposed upon drivers are laws that prescribe how fast we should drive. They rarely describe how fast we actually do drive, of course.

In all societies, relations between people are regulated by prescriptive laws. Some of them are customs – that is, informal rules of social and moral behaviour. Some are rules we accept if we belong to particular social institutions, such as religious, educational and cultural groups. And some are precise laws made by nations and enforced against all citizens within their power.

What motives do governments have in making and enforcing laws? Social control is undoubtedly one purpose. Public laws establish the authority of the government itself, and civil laws provide a framework for interaction among citizens. Without laws, it is argued, there would be anarchy in society (although anarchists themselves argue that human beings would be able to interact peacefully without laws if there were no governments to interfere in our lives).

Another purpose is the implementation of justice. Justice is a concept that most people feel is very important but few are able to define. Sometimes a just decision is simply a decision that most people feel is fair. But can we create a just society by simply observing public opinion? If we are always fair to majorities, we will often be unfair to minorities. If we do what seems to be fair at the moment, we may create unfairness in the future. Many philosophers have proposed concepts of justice that are much more theoretical than everyday notions of fairness, and sometimes governments are influenced by philosophers. But in general, governments are guided by more practical considerations such as rising crime rates or the lobbing of pressure groups.

Sometimes laws are simply an attempt to implement common sense. It is obvious to most people that dangerous driving should be punished; that fathers should provide financial support for their children if they desert their families; that a person should be compensated for losses when someone else breaks an agreement with him or her. But in order to be enforced, common sense needs to be defined in law, and when definitions are being written, it becomes clear that common sense is not such a simple matter. Instead, it is a complex skill based upon long observation of many different people in different situations. Laws based upon common sense do not necessarily look much like common sense when they have been put into words.

In practice, governments are neither institutions solely interested in retaining power, nor clear-thinking bodies implementing justice and common sense. They combine many purposes and inherit many traditions. The laws that they make and enforce reflect this confusion.

 

Exercises:

1. Прочитайте текст и выберите основную идею абзаца № 2, 3, 4, 5, 6. Соотнесите предложенные варианты с номером абзаца.

1) Social morality, rules and laws 1

2) Common sense and law 2

3) Public and civil laws 3

4) The concept of justice 4

5) Descriptive and prescriptive laws 5

 

Part 1. Criminal Law.

The most useful classification of legal liability for practical purposes is into civil and criminal. The basic difference is that an infringement of criminal law renders you liable to prosecution and, if you are convicted, you are liable to be punished; an infraction of the civil law means that the injured party may sue you and, if you are found liable, you are likely to have to pay a monetary compensation called damages or have some other remedy awarded against you.

One important reason for being able to distinguish between criminal and civil liability is that you can always compromise a claim in relation to the civil law, that is, you can bargain with the claimant (the person or company which is bringing the action against you) with a view to avoiding court action.

Criminal law deals with criminal liability by assigning crimes and fixing punishments for them. Also included in criminal law are rules and procedures for preventing and investigating crimes and prosecuting criminals, as well as the regulations governing the constitution of courts, the conduct of trials, the organization of police forces, and the administration of penal institutions.

As a matter of fact criminal law is based on a number of universal principles. Here are some of them:

· there is a presumption that the accused is innocent and the prosecution must prove his guilt beyond reasonable doubt;

· responsibility can exist only in the presence of guilt;

· a person may not be considered guilty unless all elements of an alleged crime (corpus delicti) have been established in his acts;

· criminal punishment shall be applied only by a sentence of the court.

The following general defences may excuse the accused from criminal responsibility:

· lack of age (if an offender is under 14 he is incapable of committing a crime);

· self-defence (when people have good reason to believe they are in danger of serious injury or death, they can use force to protect themselves);

· defence of family members (courts will not punish someone for using force to rescue a family member from attack if there was good reason to believe the victim was in danger of severe bodily injury or death);

· insanity (but everyone is presumed sane until the contrary is proved);

· duress by threats or duress of circumstances;

· automatism (it may arise as the result of a reflex action or concussion);

· entrapment (if a law enforcement officer induces a law-abiding citizen to commit a crime, which would not have been committed without the involvement of the officer).

Exercises:

Part 2. Civil Law.

Although most laymen ’s perception of law is associated with criminal acts, in fact the greater part of our law is civil law. For the most part civil law is concerned with the rights and duties of individuals (including legal individuals such as limited liability companies) as between themselves. Among civil law branches are such as Family law, Property law, Civil Rights law, Media law, Education law, Consumer protection law, Environmental law, etc.

The main areas of civil law with which a business may be concerned are:

Law of contract. This is concerned with the enforcement of promises, usually in the form of agreements. Such agreements may be formal written agreements or informal oral agreements, or even agreements to be implied from conduct.

Law of tort. A tort is a civil wrong, other than a breach of contract or a breach of trust (both of which are civil wrongs but are not torts), which may be remedied by an action for damages. Unlike contract the duty which is breached in committing a tort is fixed by the law, whereas the duty which is breached in committing a breach of contract is a duty undertaken voluntarily as a result of a promise to the other party. There are quite a number of individual torts: e.g. negligence, nuisance, trespass (to person, to goods, or to land), defamation, and deceit.

Commercial law. This law comprises the rules relating to specific types of contract such as sale of goods, supply of services, hire purchase, insurance, consumer credit, carriage of goods, etc.

Company law. This is the field of law concerning companies, corporations, partnerships and other business organizations. It also specifies the relationship between a business entity and outside parties who commercially interact with it.

Labour law. This can be divided into two parts. First, there is employment law – the part which regulates individual employment rights, for example, the rules relating to unfair dismissal, the right to redundancy payment, equal pay, etc. Secondly, there is industrial law – the part which relates to collective activity, for example, the law relating to industrial action, admission to and expulsion from trade unions, etc. Some employment law, particularly in the area of health and safety, is criminal law.

Land law. The main areas which concern businesses are the law relating to the relationship of landlord and tenant and planning law.

It is extremely important to understand that a particular course of conduct can give rise to consequences in both civil law and criminal law at the same time. For example, the crime of murder (and most other criminal offences involving physical injury) will at the same time involve the torts (that is, the civil wrongs) of assault and battery. The crime of causing criminal damage will amount to the tort of trespass to goods. The crime of causing death by dangerous driving will amount to the tort of negligence.

 

TEXT 3. EUROPEAN COMMUNITY.

The European Union (EU) is a supranational and intergovernmental union of 27 states with its total population about 500 million people. There are 23 official and working languages within the Union. Citizens of EU member states are also EU citizens: they directly elect the European Parliament, once every five years. They can live, travel, work, and invest in other member states (with some restrictions on new member states). Passport control and customs checks at most internal borders were abolished by the Schengen Agreement.

The European Union is governed by a number of institutions, these primarily being the European Commission, the Council of the European Union, the European Court of Justice, and the European Parliament.

The European Commission acts as an executive or Civil Service. It is currently composed of one member from each state and is responsible for drafting all proposed law, a duty on which it maintains a monopoly in order to co-ordinate European Law. It also controls some agencies and the day-to-day running of the Union. Its president is nominated by the European Council then elected by the Parliament.

The Council of the European Union (also known as the Council of Ministers) forms one half of the Union's legislative branch (the other being the Parliament). It is composed of the respective national ministers. The body's presidency rotates between the member-states every 6 months, though the current president member-state cooperates with the previous and future president member-state, to provide continuity.

The European Parliament is the only Union body composed of officials directly elected on European issues. Every 5 years citizens in all member-states vote for 751 «MEPs» who form the second half of the Union's legislative branch. Seats are distributed among the European Union member states based on their respective populations. Its members sit according to political groups rather than nationality and its president is elected by its members.

The judicial branch of the Union consists primarily of the European Court of Justice composed of one judge nominated by each member-state with the president elected from among those nominees. Below the Court of Justice there is a lower court called the Court of First Instance created to lift some of the work load of the Court of Justice. There is also the European Court of Auditors which monitors the Union's accounts.

There is no official European capital, with institutions spread across a number of cities. However, Brussels is often considered the de facto capital as it hosts most of the primary institutions, including the Commission and the Council. The Parliament also has its second seat in the city. Strasbourg is the official seat of the European Parliament, meeting there for twelve week-long plenary sessions each year. Luxembourg City plays host to the Secretariat of the European Parliament as well as the European Court of Justice, the Court of First Instance and the European Court of Auditors.

EU law covers only member states themselves. Where a conflict arises between EU law and the law of a member state, EU law takes precedence, so that the law of a member state must lose effect. Both the provisions of the Treaties, and EU regulations are said to have «direct effect» horizontally.

The other main legal instrument of the EU, «directives», have direct effect, but only «vertically». Private citizens may not sue one another on the basis of EU directives, since these are meant to be addressed to the member state. Directives allow some choice for member states in the way they translate a directive into national law. Once this has happened citizens may rely on the law that has been implemented. They may only sue the government «vertically» for failing to implement a directive correctly.

 

Exercises:

TEXT 4. THE US ATTORNEY.

In order to practice law in the USA, one must first be «admitted to the bar» in an individual state. This entails passing the state bar exam. The bar exam covers the law particular to that state and is approximately 6 hours in length. Thus attorneys in America are licensed to practice only in their home states. If they wish to practice in another state, they must fulfill that state's requirements - such as taking test on the specific features of that state's law (a part of the bar examination) before they can practice. Fortunately, there are some states that have reciprocity agreements when two or more states honor each other's rights or privileges, such as practicing law.

Generally, state bar examiners require evidence of three qualities in exam candidates: sufficient general education at the undergraduate level; sufficient US legal education; and sufficient knowledge of local bar requirements. Each state bar administration sets its own criteria for permission to sit the state bar exam.

In addition to the state bar exam, almost all states also require the Multistate Bar Exam (MBE). The MBE covers general legal knowledge in areas such as contracts, torts, constitutional law, criminal law, evidence and real property. It is a 6-hour, multiple choice exam made up of 200 questions.

A typical second day of testing includes series of timed essay exams on a variety of subjects. This portion may be comprised of two other multistate exams: the Multistate Essay Exam (MEE) and the Multistate Performance Test (MPT).

Part of the licensing process involves the assessment by bar examiners of an applicant’s character and fitness to engage in the practice of law. Currently, most states also require law students to pass the Multistate Professional Responsibility Examination (MPRE). The MPRE tests knowledge of the American Bar Association codes on professional responsibility and judicial conduct. The MPRE is a 2-hour, multiple-choice exam.

Upon admission to practice, an attorney is licensed to serve as both advocate and legal counselor. There is no division of the profession between barristers and solicitors, as in England.

At the same time on the federal level there exists the American Bar Association (ABA), which was founded in August 21, 1878 as a voluntary national organization of the legal profession. The activities of the association include maintenance of high ethical standards for the profession. The most current version of these standards, the Model Rules of Professional Conduct, was adopted in 2000.

The American Bar Association also accredits law schools under the authority of state high courts and the United States Department of Education, and according to standards developed by the association. Policies of the association are determined by a house of delegates representing the legal profession and administered by a board of governors. The ABA holds an annual meeting, which is the largest annual gathering of lawyers in the world, and is attended by approximately 12,500 international lawyers.

 

Exercises:

Text 5. LAW FIRM.

A law firm is a business entity formed by one or more lawyers to engage in the practice of law. The primary service provided by a law firm is to advise clients (individuals or corporations) about their legal rights and responsibilities, and to represent their clients in civil or criminal cases, business transactions and other matters in which legal assistance is sought.

Smaller firms tend to focus on particular specialties of the law (e.g. patent law, labor law, tax law, criminal defense, personal injury); larger firms may be composed of several specialized practice groups, allowing the firm to diversify their client base and market, and to offer a variety of services to their