To be restricted to                 - ограничивать; заключать

COMPREHENSION

Vocabulary

1.Pay attention to the pronunciation of the following terms:

oxygen	sulphur	characteristic
nitrogen	bury	diary
bacteria	carbon	cellulose
hydrogen	phosphorus

2. Read the following word formations and remember their pronunciation:

favour- favourable- favourite	-ly
recognize    - recognizable- unrecognizable- recognition	distinctly    - четко
success- successive- succession	mainly - главный
resist - resistant- resistance	rarely          - редко
interpret- interpretation	immediately - сразу; немедленно
character- characteristic- characterization	quickly       - быстро
reduce- reduction	merely - просто
preserve- preservation	frequently  - часто
fossil - fossilize- fossilization- fossilate	effectively  -эффективно
permeate- permeatable- permeation- permeative	cryptically  - непонятно, таинственно
	fairly- относительно
	clearly - ясно
un – not      - able – can be            unfavourable unrecognizable	de – отрицательное значение decompose decomposition

3. Pay attention to the underlined terms and expressions in the text:

Channel                    канал

2. to erode                    разрушать, размывать, эродировать

3. eroded                                  размытый, эродированный

4. inshore                                 прибрежный

5. fossil                                    ископаемое, окаменелость, фоссилия

6. petrifaction                          окаменение

7. strata                                    пласты; напластование

8. decay                                   процесс распада, разложение

9. oxidation                              окисление

10. fermentation                        ферментация

11. sediment                              осадок, отложение

12. decomposition          распад, гниение, разложение

13. to decompose                       распадаться, разлагаться

14. permafrost                           вечная мерзлота

15. permeation                           проницаемость, пропитывание

16. impregnation                   пропитка, импрегнация

17. to deposit                             отлагать(ся); осаждать

18. to be embedded        погребенный; заключенный в породе

19. lithify                                   литифицировать, окаменевать

20. diagenesis                            диагенез (процесс преобразования осадка                                                 в горную породу в естественных                                                                                         условиях)

21. fossilization                         фоссилизация, окаменение

22. terrestrial                              земной, наземный, континентальный

23. compound                       сложный

24. carbonization                       карбонизация, обугливание, углефикация

25. to calcify                              отвердевать(окаменевать) вследствие                                                                отложения известковых солей

26. to silicify                              окремневать

27. tissue                                    ткань

28. wax                                      парафин

29. entombed                             погребенный; захороненный

To be restricted to                 - ограничивать; заключать

To increase in                        - увеличиваться

To be accompanied by - встречаться вместе

To be altered by        - изменяться под воздействием ч.-л.

To resist to                            - сопротивляться чему-то

WORDLIST

PRONUNCIATION

TERMS

carbonization	карбонизация, обугливание, углефикация
channel	канал
compound	сложный, составной
decay	процесс распада, разложение
decomposition	распад, гниение, разложение
diagenesis	диагенез (процесс преобразования осадка в горную породу в естественных условиях)
eroded	разрушенный, эродированный
fermentation	ферментация
fossil	ископаемое, окаменелость, фоссилия
fossilization	фоссилизация, окаменение
impregnation	пропитка, импрегнация
inshore	прибрежный
oxidation	окисление
permafrost	вечная мерзлота
permeation	проницаемость, проникновение
petrifaction	окаменение
sediment	осадок, отложение
stratum	пласт
strata	пласты; напластование
terrestrial	земной, наземный, континентальный
to be embedded	быть погребенным, заключенным в породе
to calcify	отвердевать (окаменевать) вследствие отложения известковых солей
to decompose	распадаться, разлагаться
to deposit	Отлагать (ся), осаждать
to erode	разрушать, размывать, эродировать
to lithify	литифицировать, окаменевать
to silicify	окремневать

WORDS AND PHRASES

ancient	древний, старинный
burrow	нора, червоточина
clue	ключ к разгадке, улика
corpse	труп, останки
creature	создание, существо, животное
cryptically	скрыто
definite	ясный, точный, определенный
derogatory	умаляющий достоинства, уничижительный
distinctly	четко
effectively	эффективно
extinction	вымирание (животных)
fairly = clearly	ясно, четко
final	заключительный, конечный
frequently	часто
immediately	немедленно
implication	подтекст, смысл
inherited	унаследованный, перенятый
interpretation	истолкование, объяснение
mainly	главным образом, в основном
merely	просто
mold	плесень, плесневый грибок
quickly	быстро
rarely	редко
reduction	сокращение
sea floor	морское дно
sequential	следующий, последовательный
shell	раковина, панцирь
species	вид (биологический)
subsequent	более поздний, последующий
to alter	изменять, меняться
to be accompanied by	быть сопровождаемым
to be altered by	изменяться под действием ч.-л.
to be restricted to	быть ограниченным в пределах ч.-л.
to create	создавать
to displace	перемещать, смещать
to dissolve	pазлагать (ся), растворяться
to entomb	погребать, хоронить
to hint	намекать
to increase in	увеличиваться
to indicate	показывать, указывать
to inject	впрыскивать, нагнетать
to lay down	отлагаться
to lock up	запирать
to lump together	объединять
to mark	отмечать, ставить метку
to overturn	опрокидывать, переворачиваться
to percolate	просачиваться, проникать сквозь
to preserve	сохранять
to recognize	осознавать, признавать
to reinforce	укреплять, усиливать
to resist	сопротивляться, противостоять
to resist to	противостоять
to rot away	гнить, портиться
to sample	брать образцы
to share	разделять
to subject to	подчинять, покорять
to temper with	сочетаться, гармонировать с
to turn upside down	переворачивать вверх дном
to undergo	испытывать, переносить
to vanish	исчезать
to wipe	вытирать

 

 

4.2 Read the texts “Geological Time Scale» in SELF-STUDY BOOKLET, PG. 58) Choose one period and using the following plan, make a short report (R.P – 2.1 )

 REPORT PLAN:

• period-name and its origin
• time period
• geological processes
• fauna and flora changes
• characteristic features (summary)
• diagrams \ pictures

 

 

4. ORAL COMMUNICATION - Geologic time scale.

WATCH THE VIDEO

5.1 Geologic Time-the Earth in Context

                                (Relative dating/ absolute dating)

 5.1.1Before- watching

UNIT 2

FOSSILS

COMPREHENSION

Vocabulary

EXERCISES

2.1 Mark the stressed syllable on the following words from the text:

nitrogen, carbonization, characteristic, oxidation, bacteria, organism, impregnation, phosphorus, favorable, unrecognizable.

 

2 .2 Find the words to the following definitions in the text and translate them into Russian.

	tending to take away; detract
	that which is understood; deduction
	to point out; to show; to suggest
	having fixed (distinct) limits; certain
	ultimate; finishing
	to place in
	to oppose; withstand
	diminish
	a hint; key
	explanation
	to acknowledge; to admit
	to change
	to keep in a good state

2.3. Give the Russian equivalents to the following word combinations and phrases:

· the word fossil carries a distinctly derogatory implication

· the term soon became to be restricted

· certain fossils were characteristic of the strata

· immediately after death

· in the presence of oxygen

· in the absence of oxygen

· other organisms that live on dead material

· under favorable conditions

· a reduction with increasing pressure

· for all practical purposes

· thereby resistant to attack

· past events are recorded cryptically in sedimentary rocks.

 

READING COMPREHENSION

The Geological Column

The geological column is the full record of the Earth’s crust rocks laid down in sequence. This column is based on rock units, each comprising rock layers created in one geological period of time. In ascending order several of the time rock units called zones make up one stage; several stages form a series; several series build a system; several systems make an erathem.

Geologic Time Scale

The geological time scale is used by geologists and other scientists to describe the timing and relationships between events that have occurred during the history of the Earth. The table of geologic periods presented here is in accordance with the dates and nomenclature proposed by the International Commission on Stratigraphy.

Current radiometric dating evidence indicates an age of the Earth of about 4570 million years old (expressed with m.y.a. or "Ma" as in "it dates from 4570 Ma"). The geological or deep time of Earth's past has been organized into various units according to events which took place in each period. Different spans of time on the time scale are usually delimited by major geological or paleontological events, such as mass extinctions. For example, the boundary between the Cretaceous period and the Paleogene period is defined by the extinction event that marked the demise of the dinosaurs and of many marine species.

History of the time scale

The principles underlying geologic (geological) time scales were laid down by Nicholas Steno in the late 17th century. Steno argued that rock layers (strata) are laid down in succession, and that each represents a "slice" of time. He also formulated the principle of superposition, which states that any given stratum is probably older than those above it and younger than those below it. Steno's principles were simple; applying them to real rocks proved complex. Over the course of the 18th century geologists came to realize that: 1) Sequences of strata were often eroded, distorted, tilted, or even inverted after deposition; 2) Strata laid down at the same time in different areas could have entirely different appearances; 3) The strata of any given area represented only part of the Earth's long history.

The first serious attempts to formulate a geological time scale that could be applied anywhere on Earth took place in the late 18th century. The most influential of those early attempts (championed by Abraham Werner, among others) divided the rocks of the Earth's crust into four types: Primary, Secondary, Tertiary, and Quaternary. Each type of rock, according to the theory, formed during a specific period in Earth history. It was thus possible to speak of a "Tertiary Period" as well as of "Tertiary Rocks." Indeed, "Tertiary" and "Quaternary" remained in use as names of geological periods well into the 20th century.

The identification of strata by the fossils they contained, pioneered by William Smith, Georges Cuvier, and Alexandre Brogniart in the early 19th century, enabled geologists to divide Earth history more finely and precisely. It also enabled them to correlate strata across national (or even continental) boundaries. If two strata (however distant in space or different in composition) contained the same fossils, chances were good that they had been laid down at the same time. Detailed studies of the strata and fossils of Europe produced, between 1820 and 1850, the sequence of geological periods still used today.

British geologists dominated the process, and the names of the periods reflect that dominance. The "Cambrian," "Ordovician," and "Silurian" periods were named after ancient British tribes (and defined using stratigraphic sequences from Wales). The "Devonian" was named for the English county of Devon, and the name "Carboniferous" was simply an adaptation of "the Coal Measures," the old British geologists' term for the same set of strata. The "Permian," though defined using strata in Russia, was delineated and named by a British geologist: Roderick Murchison.

British geologists were also responsible for the grouping of periods into Eras and the subdivision of the Tertiary and Quaternary periods into epochs.

When William Smith and Sir Charles Lyell first recognized that rock strata represented successive time periods, there was no way to determine what time scale they represented. Creationists proposed dates of only a few thousand years, while others suggested large (and even infinite) ages. For over 100 years, the age of the Earth and of the rock strata was the subject of considerable debate. Advances in the latter part of the 20th century allowed radioactive dating to provide relatively firm dates to geological horizons. In the intervening century and a half, geologists and paleontologists constructed time scales based solely on the relative positions of different strata and fossils.

In 1977, the Global Commission on Stratigraphy (now the International Commission) started an effort to define global references (Global Boundary Stratotype Sections and Points) for geologic periods and faunal stages.

Terminology

The major divisions are shown in the scale of relative geologic time (Table 1), which is arranged in chronological order with the oldest division at the bottom, the youngest at the top.

Eons are the largest intervals of geologic time and are hundreds of millions of years in duration. In the time scale the Phanerozoic Eon is the most recent eon and began 570 million years ago. Eons are divided into smaller time intervals known as eras. In the time scale the Phanerozoic is divided into three eras: Cenozoic, Mesozoic and Paleozoic. Very significant events in Earth's history are used to determine the boundaries of the eras.

Eras are subdivided into periods. The events that bound the periods are wide-spread in their extent but are not as significant as those which bound the eras. In the time scale above you can see that the Paleozoic is subdivided into the Permian, Carboniferous, Devonian, Silurian, Ordovician and Cambrian periods.

Finer subdivisions of time are possible and the periods are subdivided into epochs. Geologists tend to talk in terms of Upper/Late, Lower/Early and Middle parts of periods and other units – e.g. "Upper Jurassic", "Middle Cambrian". Upper, Middle, and Lower are terms applied to the rocks themselves, as in "Upper Jurassic sandstone," while Late, Middle, and Early are applied to time, as in "Early Jurassic deposition" or "fossils of Early Jurassic age." The adjectives are capitalized when the subdivision is formally recognized, and lower case when not; thus "early Miocene" but "Early Jurassic." Because geologic units occurring at the same time but from different parts of the world can often look different and contain different fossils, there are many examples where the same period was historically given different names in different locales. It is a key aspect of the work of the International Commission on Stratigraphy to reconcile this conflicting terminology and define universal horizons that can be used around the world

 

 

Geologic Time Scale

EON	ERA	PERIOD	EPOCH	AGE (my)
PHANEROZOIC	CENOZOIC	Quaternary	Holocene	0.01
			Pleistocene	1.6
		Neogene	Pliocene	5.3
			Miocene	24
		Paleogene	Oligocene	37
			Eocene	58
			Paleocene	66
	MESOZOIC	Cretaceous	Late	144
			Middle
			Early
		Jurassic	Late	208
			Middle
			Early
		Triassic	Late

245

Middle Early

PALEOZOIC

Permian

Late

286

Middle Early

Carboniferous

Late

360

Middle Early

Devonian

Late

408

Middle Early

Silurian

Late

438

Middle Early

Ordovician

Late

505

Middle Early

Cambrian

Late

570

Middle Early PROTEROZOIC

Also known as Precambrian

2500 ARCHEAN 3960

LISTENING COMPREHENSION

5.1. You will hear a radio report about fossils. Answer statements 1-10 by writing T (for True) and F (for False):

1. Fossils are restricted to sedimentary rocks, as well as igneous and metamorphic.

2. The process of fossilization takes place over long periods of time.

3. Oxygen plays an important role in the process of fossilization.

4. Fossils are usually preserved in different rocks.

5. Diagenesis is known as reduction, accompanied by some chemical reactions.

6. Coal was formed as a result of carbonization.

7. Fossils are simply interesting and beautiful structures.

8. The word fossil refers to anything in the ground.

9. Petrifaction has the same meaning as fossils.

10. Fossils can be divided into several groups.

 

5 .2. Listen to the report once more. Then, for statements 11-20, complete the notes that summarize what the speaker says. You will need to write a word or a short phrase in each box.

11. The Latin word fodere means                                                                  .

                                                   

12. The term fossil means the direct evidence of                                    life.

 

13. Fossils are usually found in                                                          .

 

14. The process of                          takes place over a long time.

 

15. The organisms begin                                 after death.

 

16. The process of                            takes place in the presence of oxygen.

 

17. The process of                           takes place in the absence of oxygen.

 

18. The hard parts of organisms resist                                                   .

 

19. The fossils are covered by layers of                                               .

 

20.                            is the increase of pressure in the pore spaces o

WATCH THE VIDEO

5.1 Geologic Time-the Earth in Context

                                (Relative dating/ absolute dating)

 5.1.1Before- watching

The Geological Column

The geological column is the full record of the Earth’s crust rocks laid down in sequence. This column is based on rock units, each comprising rock layers created in one geological period of time. In ascending order several of the time rock units called zones make up one stage; several stages form a series; several series build a system; several systems make an era (them).

 

Four Eons

A- Hadean Eon (4600-4000) million years ago

B- Archean Eon (4000-2500)

C- Proterozoic Eon (2500-540)

D- Phanererozoic Eon (540 to today)

 

 

D

C

B

A

 

  GEOLOGICAL TIME SCALE

ERA	PERIODS	EPOCH
CENOZOIC  (65-present)	Quaternary (2-present)	Holocene (0.01-Present) Pleistocene (2-0.01)
	Neogene (24.6-2)	Pliocene (5-2) Miocene (24.6-5)
	Paleogene (65-24.6)	Oligocene (38-24.6) Eocene (55-38) Paleocene (65-55)
MESOZOIC  (248-65)	Cretaceous (144-65)
	Jurassic (213-144)
	Triassic (248-213)
PALEOZOIC  (540-248)	Permian (286-248)
	Carboniferous (360-286)
	Devonian (408-360)
	Silurian (440-408)
	Ordovician (505-440)
	Cambrian (540-505)

 

5.2.2.While watching

1. Put the terms in the right order of sequence.

• Eras
• Epochs
• Eons
• Periods
• Bleams

2. Put the eons in the proper succession

Major event	Eon	Its number in succession

 

5.2.3 After watching

1. Pronounce the bold words

1. The eon called the PRE-ARCEAN began 4.6 billion years ago.

2. The PRE-ARCHEAN eon was followed by the ARCHEAN eon which lasted from 3800 million years ago to 2500 million years ago.

3. Then came the PROTEROZOIC eon which lasted from 2500 million years ago to 570 million years ago when the PHANEROZOIC eon began.

2. Using the pattern below name the ages of each period:

EXAMPLE: The name CARBONIFEROUS refers to the period between 360-286 million years.

 

PHANEROZOIC

ERA	PERIOD	Mill. Of YRS. AGO
Paleozoic	Permian	286
	Carboniferous (Pennsylvanian \ Mississippi)	320 360
	Devonian	408
	Silurian	438
	Ordovician	505
	Cambrian	570

 

3.Insert the correct grammatical form of the word in brackets:

Keep in mind that ___________ (1. geology) distinguish each geologic period by its unique system of rocks and rock _________ (2. form). The periods are ____________ (3. general) named for geographic ______________ (4. locate) where the rocks of the period were first ___________ (5. study) or where the characteristics of that period’s rocks are _____________ (6. good) displayed. The periods that _______ (7. be) not named for ____________ (8. geography) location are named for some special ___________ (9. characterize) of the rock formations.

 

DISCUSSION (R.P – 2.1)

 

TASK 1

Imagine that you were living beings. You died, what must happen to your bodies to form fossils?

 

  TASK 2

You are scientists trying to determine the age of the Earth on the basis of what.

 

COMMUNICATIVE FORMULAS

· No doubt / undoubtedly

· I think / I guess

· My impression is that

· My feeling is that

· One believes that

· I’m afraid I disagree with you

· I entirely agree with you

· To my regret

· Could you explain

· It’s of great value / no value

 

COMPREHENSION

Vocabulary

1.Pay attention to the pronunciation of the following terms:

oxygen	sulphur	characteristic
nitrogen	bury	diary
bacteria	carbon	cellulose
hydrogen	phosphorus

2. Read the following word formations and remember their pronunciation:

favour- favourable- favourite	-ly
recognize    - recognizable- unrecognizable- recognition	distinctly    - четко
success- successive- succession	mainly - главный
resist - resistant- resistance	rarely          - редко
interpret- interpretation	immediately - сразу; немедленно
character- characteristic- characterization	quickly       - быстро
reduce- reduction	merely - просто
preserve- preservation	frequently  - часто
fossil - fossilize- fossilization- fossilate	effectively  -эффективно
permeate- permeatable- permeation- permeative	cryptically  - непонятно, таинственно
	fairly- относительно
	clearly - ясно
un – not      - able – can be            unfavourable unrecognizable	de – отрицательное значение decompose decomposition

3. Pay attention to the underlined terms and expressions in the text:

Channel                    канал

2. to erode                    разрушать, размывать, эродировать

3. eroded                                  размытый, эродированный

4. inshore                                 прибрежный

5. fossil                                    ископаемое, окаменелость, фоссилия

6. petrifaction                          окаменение

7. strata                                    пласты; напластование

8. decay                                   процесс распада, разложение

9. oxidation                              окисление

10. fermentation                        ферментация

11. sediment                              осадок, отложение

12. decomposition          распад, гниение, разложение

13. to decompose                       распадаться, разлагаться

14. permafrost                           вечная мерзлота

15. permeation                           проницаемость, пропитывание

16. impregnation                   пропитка, импрегнация

17. to deposit                             отлагать(ся); осаждать

18. to be embedded        погребенный; заключенный в породе

19. lithify                                   литифицировать, окаменевать

20. diagenesis                            диагенез (процесс преобразования осадка                                                 в горную породу в естественных                                                                                         условиях)

21. fossilization                         фоссилизация, окаменение

22. terrestrial                              земной, наземный, континентальный

23. compound                       сложный

24. carbonization                       карбонизация, обугливание, углефикация

25. to calcify                              отвердевать(окаменевать) вследствие                                                                отложения известковых солей

26. to silicify                              окремневать

27. tissue                                    ткань

28. wax                                      парафин

29. entombed                             погребенный; захороненный

to be restricted to                 - ограничивать; заключать