VIII. Respiratory infections

1. Why are respiratory infections so dangerous? 2. What parts of the respiratory tract are infected more often? 3. What does chronic bronchitis mean? 4. What is the most important symptom of the chronic bronchitis? 5. What is the main treatment of the chronic bronchitis? 6. What does the term “catarrh” indicate?

 

Infections of the respiratory tract

The respiratory tract is a subject to infection more frequently than any other part of the body. Respiratory infections stand third as a cause of deaths. The deeper the inflammation, the more serious are its consequences: pneumonia is frequently fatal. Inflammation of the deeper respiratory structures results from a downward extension of a relatively harmless inflammation in the upper structures: nose, throat and trachea. Inflammation of the mucous membrane is of the so-called catarrhal type: the term “catarrh” indicates a chronic state of inflammation. Excessive production of mucus by ciliated mucous membrane causes the condition known as chronic bronchitis. Frequent coughing is the most important symptom of chronic bronchitis. The main treatment of chronic bronchitis consists of eliminating the irritation that causes it. 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

IX. Diseases of the abdomen

1. What does jaundice mean? 2. How many types of jaundice are there? 3. What procedure has to be performed to diagnose a liver diseases? 4. Why is ulcer a common condition? 5. What causes ulcers? 6. What does the patient usually complain in the case of ulcers? 7. What is the treatment of ulcers?

 

Diseases of the abdomen 

There are a lot of types of disorders and ailments of the digestive tract. I name several of them. Jaundice is the most obvious symptom of liver disease. Jaundice is divided into three main types: obstructive jaundice, hepatocellular jaundice, hemolytic jaundice. The fact that sera from different cases of jaundice can give different types of reaction is used for differentiating between different types of jaundice. 

Ulcer is a common condition. A peptic ulcer is an erosion in the lining of the digestive tract as a result of the action of the enzyme pepsin. Most of the symptoms are ascribed to the high degree of acidity of the juice. The second factor is emotional stress. Peptic ulcer disease can be called a psychosomatic disease. There are two types of ulcers: gastric and duodenal.

They are very similar effects. The patient usually complains of a pain after meals (within the first hour in case of gastric ulcer, from three to four hours after meal in duodenal ulcer). The patient should have a proper diet and a prompt treatment.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

X. Kidney diseases

1. Which parts of the kidney are susceptible to disease?

2. What is glomerulonephritis?

3. Why is a clearance test used?

4. How do we call diseases involving the tubules?

5. What causes Bright’s disease?

6.What is athero-sclerosis of the kidney?

7. Why are stones in the kidneys so dangerous?

 

There are three parts of the kidney which are susceptible to disease: the glomeruli, the tubules and the blood vessels.

The disease in which the glomeruli are particularly involved is called glomerulonephritis. In glomerulo-nephritis, the glomeruli become clogged so that the blood no longer flows through them. Here a clearance test is useful; it will show that smaller quantities of filtrate are formed than normally. 

Diseases involving the tubules are called nephroses. They are usually caused by poisons of various kinds, such as mercury, bismuth, uranium, or carbolic acid. Some degree of tubular degeneration occurs, in such diseases as diabetes, malaria, pernicious anaemia, and traumatic shock. Finally, athero-sclerosis of the kidney may occur, reducing the total blood flow through the kidney's blood vessels.

A common disease of the kidney, known as Bright's disease, includes a number of different conditions. The discovery of albumin in the urine usually indicates a faulty working of the kidneys. It means that albumin from the blood plasma pass through the renal tubules, and excrete in the urine. At the same time the damaged tubules fail to eliminate fluid, which causes swelling in legs and face.

Stones in kidneys can be carried for years producing no symptoms. If the stone is large, or several are present, the infection may progress to a pyelonephrosis, resulting in the destruction and loss of the kidney. Most stones in the ureter will pass into the bladder by the prescription of conservative treatment such as forcing fluid, sedation, etc.

VII. Congenital Heart Defects

1. What are congenital heart defects?

2. Why do congenital heart defects happen?

3. When does the human heart begin to form?

4. What can increase the risk of congenital heart malformations during pregnancy?

5. When do ASDS occur?

6. What is COA?

7. How are congenital heart defects treated?

Congenital heart defects are abnormalities in the heart's structure that are present at birth.

Congenital heart defects happen because of incomplete or abnormal development of the fetus' heart during the very early weeks of pregnancy. Some are associated with genetic disorders, such as Down syndrome. But the cause of most congenital heart defects is unknown.

Most kids with heart problems can live healthy lives.

The human heart begins to form as a single tubular structure at about the fourth week of pregnancy. By the eighth week, this tube will gradually increase in length.

Multiple genetic and environmental factors play an important role in the development of the heart during the early stages of a fetus' development (the first 9 weeks during pregnancy).

Uncontrolled diabetes, alcohol or drug abuse, or exposure to industrial chemicals during pregnancy also can increase the risk of congenital heart malformations. Some chromosome abnormalities, in which there is an extra or missing chromosome are associated with congenital heart disease.

An atrial septal defect (ASD) is a type of congenital heart defect. ASDS occur during fetal development of the heart and are present at birth. In most cases ASDS are diagnosed and treated successfully with few or no complications.

Coarctation of the aorta (or COA) is a congenital heart defect when the aorta is sometimes referred to as a hole in the heart - narrowed.

Congenital defects usually are treated with surgery, catheter procedures, and. sometimes medication.