Using the word combinations and phrases from the above parts A and B, please, change the texts in Exercise 41.1 into the ones related to one of the perspectives in psychology or general psychology.

 

 

SAMPLE TEXTS

 

Scientists disagree as to whether observation of human behavior under highly controlled laboratory conditions is possible. In the past, some believed that experimental study of the behavior models of the man under laboratory conditions could in fact cause the environment that makes it possible for a researcher to predict a variety of behavioral modes as the subjects of study. In carefully controlled experiments researchers believed they could manipulate the variables arising from the complexity of the real world and the equipment used in the experiment. In such controlled conditions, they argued, a trustworthy case study was possible. However, attempts to replicate some of the experiments which claimed to be successful and enjoy the relevant data failed. Now many scientists believe that laboratory settings may not provide researchers with a way to approach different problems and find new ways to explain and predict human behavior as well as develop new treatments for problem behaviors.

 

 

Some scientists believe that they can best determine how the behavioral perspective in psychology is observed under highly controlled conditions in the lab settings. However, laboratory experiments are by definition artificial and may not reflect what happens in the real world. Other researchers believe, therefore, that empirical observation is better, and prefer to carry out field studies and case studies of individuals’ behavioral patterns in natural settings. In this way, in-depth data can be collected by observers without interfering with the experiment procedures in any way, even though this may be a more time-consuming method. However, studies of individual behavioral patterns in real situations may not be representative of the general group of population. In short, both approaches have their advantages and disadvantages.

 

 

 

 

 

 

SUPPLEMENT

 

TEXT 1

 

Please, use the text below as an additional source of information. Draw the necessary data and use it in your talk on Module 5 topic.

 

https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Introduction_to_Psychology/Research_Methods_in_Psychology

 

Research Designs

Although there are many different kinds of research designs in psychology, studies may be categorized into descriptive or qualitative, correlational, and experimental. The method of data collection also varies, with self-report on one end of the spectrum, and naturalistic observation on the other.

Descriptive Studies

Studies that do not test specific relationships between variables are called descriptive studies. In this research method, general or specific behaviors or attributes are observed and measured, without respect to each other. These studies are generally the design of choice for breaking into new areas, as the vast but often inconclusive amount of information collected can be drawn upon for future hypotheses.

An example of such a study would be a researcher inquiring into the quality of mental health institutions. This would be done by observation or measurements of various criteria, as opposed to relationships between variables. Alternatively, the study could be conducted without any specific criteria in mind.

Correlational Study

This method of statistical analysis shows the relationship between two variables. For example, research has shown that alcohol dependence correlates with depression. That is to say, the more alcohol people consume, the more depressed they become. On the other hand, it could be the other way around as well: the more depressed people become, the more likely they are to consume alcohol.

The attributes of correlations include strength and direction. The direction may be positive (both variables both increase or decrease together), negative (one variable increases while the other decreases) or unrelated (a random relationship between variables). The strength of a correlation ranges from -1 to +1 with a 0 reflecting no relationship between variables. A correlational study serves only to describe/predict behavior and not to explain it. This is so because a third variable could be shown to cause the occurrence of one of the variables. Furthermore, only experiments can prove causation.

Experiments

Experiments are generally the studies that are the most precise and have the most weight to them due to their conclusive power. They are particularly effective in proving hypotheses about cause and effect relationships between variables. A hypothesis is a prediction of how one variable relates to another. There are two types of hypotheses, null and directional. The null is a prediction that there will not be any change in the dependent variable when the researcher changes the independent variable. The directional hypothesis states that the change in the independent variable will induce a change in the dependent variable. In a true experiment, all variables are held constant except for the independent variable, which is manipulated. Thus, any changes in the experimental groups can be solely attributed to the action of the independent variable. This is called being objective.

For instance, in an experiment to test whether music improves people's memories, we would have a sheet of paper with ten unrelated words on it for people to memorize. The control group would have no music playing in the background while the experimental group would have some music in the background. Because as researchers we have adhered to the scientific method and held all variables as constant as possible, if the experimental group does report better recollection of words, then we could assume that the music had an effect on memory. However, we must be certain to do our best to ensure that any controllable differences between the two groups are eliminated in order to ensure that no confounding variable interferes with the experiment.

There are two main ways to pick, or sample the subjects in an experiment, random and stratified. In a random sampling each person has an equal chance at being picked. This means that if 90% of the population being sampled from are Christian then 90% of the sample will be Christian. If the researcher wanted all religions represented equally he would employ stratified sampling. For instance, the experiment could be performed only on women, or on mixed groups with equal numbers of each sex in them, to eliminate the possibility of biased results from one gender having better average memory than the other.

Steps must be taken to make sure that there is no experimenter bias. Two common forms of bias are demand characteristics and expectancy effects. If a researcher expects certain results from an experiment and influences the subjects response this is called demand characteristics. If the experimenter inadvertently interprets the information to be as expected in his hypothesis it is called expectancy effect. To counteract experimenter bias the subjects can be kept uninformed on the intentions of the experiment, which is called single blind. If the people collecting the information and the subjects giving it are kept uninformed then it is called a double blind experiment.

The experiment should also be reported so that other researchers can repeat it. If an experiment isn't repeatable it will not hold much weight in the scientific community. To help an experiment be repeatable the researcher should have the variables be measureable, this is called being empirical.

Whether researching humans or animals the experiment should be ethical. When humans are the subjects they should be informed of what the study is, consent to being in it, be debriefed afterwards, and their information should also be kept confidential.

Naturalistic Observation

Researchers study organisms in their natural environments or habitats without trying to manipulate or control anything. In this method, the researcher observes the behavior under study in its natural setting while attempting to avoid influencing or controlling it. The observations are done in a naturalistic setting without any preparation or participation of the researcher. Therefore, the behavior is observed in public places, streets, homes, and schools. Observing people from other cultures response in the same setting is a way to provide information for cross-cultural research.

Self Report

This method includes tests, questionnaires, and interviews. All of which do the same thing, give the subject a stimuli, i.e. the question, and get a response. The advantage of using these is the ability to inexpensively and rapidly collect vast amounts of data. This allows a psychologist to compare one person, or a group of peoples results to thousands of others. The disadvantage is that they are not always telling what the subject's response is but what the subject says is the response.

 

TEXT 2