Questions and tasks for discussion.

1. What territories do taiga forests occupy?

2. Is there a wide rage of forest plants on these territories?

3. Where are the undisturbed taiga forests to be found in Europe? What is special

about those forests?

4. Why are the tree roots shallow? Characterise the taiga soils.

5. What kind of climate is there in the taiga zone? What are the summer and

winter like? What are the temperature characteristics like?

6. Is precipitation a limiting factor? What kind of precipitation is there?

7. Can the trees obtain energy and nutrients from photosynthesis all year round?

8. What deciduous trees can you find in taiga? Where do they grow?

9. What other plants are characteristic of these forests?

10.How is the problem of energy shortage solved by taiga animal species?

11.Are there more herbivorous, carnivorous or omnivorous animals, do you

think? Why?

12.How about the ornithological variety of taiga?

Project “Forest Biome (Taiga)”

Divide into teams of 4 or 5 students. Choose any aspect of the problem

of the forest biome (taiga, tropical forest, broadleaf forest, etc.).

Jointly arrange a presentation of the materials collected in form of Power-

Point demonstration. Try to illustrate your points of presentation with

slides and pictures.

Comment on the following information:

Over 11,000 species of vascular plants (of which 461 are classified as

endangered by the Red Data Book, but some 2000—3000 are estimated as

being under threat), 320 mammals (64 endangered), about 730 birds

(109 endangered), 75 reptiles (11 endangered), about 30 amphibians

(4 endangered) and 270 fresh-water fish (9 endangered) species may be

found in Russia. This constitutes about 8 % of global vascular plant flora,

7 % of the mammal fauna and almost 8 % of the bird fauna.

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UNIT 4. WHAT IS FORESTRY AND WHAT DOES IT DO?

Forestry is the art, science, and practice of studying and managing forests and

plantations and related natural resources. A practitioner of forestry is known as a

forester. Silviculture, a related science, involves the growing and tending of trees and

forests.

What do you know about sustainable forest management? The texts to come explain

some details of the concept of sustainability in forest management and describe

some of the practices of forestry.

Before reading Text 1 study the topical vocabulary.

Topical Vocabulary

sustainable forest management — устойчивое лесоуправление;

dominant species — преобладающая порода;

complementary — дополнительный, дополняющий; комплиментарный;

barren ['barǩn] soil — бесплодная, тощая земля;

thrive — процветать; пышно расти, разрастаться;

endangered species — исчезающий вид; вид, находящийся под угрозой

исчезновения;

rot — гниль; гнить;

fertility [fǫ:'tǺlǺtǺ] — плодородие;

nutrient poor — бедный (питательными веществами);

natural regeneration — естественное восстановление; естественное лесо-

возобновление, самосев;

seedling — сеянец; саженец, рассада; зернышко;

undergrowth — подлесок; подрост;

sprout — давать почки, пускать ростки, давать побеги, расти;

site preparation — расчистка территории;

plough [plau] — вспахивать, пахать;

scarifying machine (scarifier ['skarǺfaǺǩ]) — культиватор-рыхлитель;

scalping — обнажение (почвы), удаление растительного слоя;

treat — подвергать (технологической) обработке, обрабатывать; очищать

digger — землеройное орудие; культурный плужный корпус;

thinning — прореживание (леса); рубка ухода;

cleaning — очистка, осветление; рубки осветления;

tending young stands — уход за молодым древостоем;

final treatment — последняя обработка; окончательные рубки ухода;

pest — вредитель, паразит;

disease [dǺ'zi:z] — болезнь, заболевание;

final tending operation — последняя рубка ухода;

clearing saw — пила для рубок ухода;

stand — лесонасаждение; древостой;

stunt growth — останавливать рост;

growing conditions — условия произрастания;

rotation — ротация, чередование;

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standing trees — деревья на корню;

subsequent ['sȜbsi:kwǩnt] thinnings — последующее прореживание (леса);

ecological thinning — экологические рубки ухода;

pruning — обрезание ветвей, удаление сучьев;

clear wood — бездефектная древесина;

branch stub — обрубленный конец ветки;

knot-free lumber — пиломатериалы без сучков.

TEXT 1. FOREST MANAGEMENT

The scientific study of forest species and their interaction with the environment

is referred to as forest ecology, while the management of forests

is often referred to as forestry. Forestry is the art of growing rotational

crops of timber trees in forests and woods. It may be defined in principle

as the management of forests to insure maximum benefit to mankind.

While the continuous production of timber products is generally the

main objective, secondary benefits such as recreation, wildlife protection,

and watershed maintenance are almost always involved. Forest management

has changed considerably over the last few centuries, with rapid

changes from the 1980s onwards culminating in a practice now referred to

as sustainable forest management. Foresters who practice sustainable forest

management focus on the integration of ecological, social and economic

values.

The concept of forest management has acquired a broader content than

it used to have and now relates more to caring for the forest environment

as an integrated totality. The actions and methods employed in wood production

are nowadays designed to ensure that the requirements of the natural

environment are taken into consideration during all stages of the forest's

growth.

Likewise in forest regeneration, the alternatives now chosen have the

farthest-reaching effects on both wood production and environmental protection.

Forest regeneration. Regeneration is an inseparable aspect of sustainable

use of forests. Generally conifer stands are regenerated at an age of

60—120 years (depending on growth site) in the central parts and at 80—

160 years in the north of Russia. The corresponding recommendation for

birch stands is 60—80 years, but they can be regenerated earlier if the tree

trunks are stout enough.

In most cases, regeneration is intended to create a mixed forest, in

which the dominant species is pine or spruce, with birch in a complemen 43

tary role. Forests on the most barren soils, where hardwood species do not

thrive, are an exception. The main tree species and regeneration method

used are chosen primarily on the basis of soil type and fertility. Especially

on nutrient-poor soils, the first option to be considered is natural regeneration.

It is the least expensive and easiest alternative — when it succeeds. In

the event of enough seedlings failing to spring up spontaneously, expensive

and labour-intensive efforts to redress the matter — such as supplementary

planting and removing grass and other undergrowth — must be

resorted to.

Site preparation is of decisive importance in forest regeneration. Exposing

mineral soil gives planted seedlings a better chance of thriving and

promotes the natural sprouting of, especially, birch as a supplementary

species. Gentler soil-preparation methods have been adopted in recent

years and deep ploughing has been almost completely abandoned. Today,

about two-thirds of the area treated is gone over by scarifying or scalping

machines and the remainder mounded using tractor-diggers or excavators.

Interest in controlled burning is reviving, but the areas on which this

method is practised are still small.

Management of young stands. The species balance in young tree

stands is regulated by means of cleaning and thinning. This involves removing

shrubs and other undergrowth likely to interfere with the growth

of the main species.

The guidelines for tending young stands have been revised in recent

years. The main changes are that now the aim is to have more hardwoods

and to delay final treatment of the young stand. Having hardwoods mixed

with the main softwood species improves soil properties, reduces pest and

disease damage and increases biodiversity. Hardwoods also improve the

quality of softwoods, especially pine, by retarding the growth of branches.

Stands of young trees usually need tending once or twice during their first

fifteen years of life. In the final tending operation, the stands are thinned to

a density of, depending on species, 1,600—2,000 trees per hectare and

then left to grow on until it is time for the first thinning.

Undergrowth is removed with a clearing saw; herbicides are nowadays

rarely used. There is growing interest in using biomass obtained when

older seedling stands and young forests are thinned as fuel.

Thinning. The purpose of thinning is to control the amount and distribution

of available growing space, to replicate the forest's natural development

and ensure an even age structure. Removing trees whose growth has

been stunted or which are diseased or otherwise of poor quality gives the

others more room in which to grow. Depending on growing conditions and

44

species, a stand is usually thinned 1—3 times during a rotation. The frequency

of thinning has been reduced to improve the economy of these operations

and lessen the damage done to standing trees.

The first thinning is done 30—35 years after regeneration, when the

trees are 12—14 metres tall, and reduces the number per hectare to around

1,000. First thinnings ought to be carried out considerably more often than

at present. Neglecting them decisively reduces the profitability of wood

production. Second and subsequent thinnings cut the density to 450—550

per hectare and these trees are allowed to grow on until the area in question

is due for regeneration.

Ecological thinning is where the primary aim of forest thinning is to

increase growth of selected trees, favoring development of wildlife habitat

(such as hollows) rather than focusing on increased timber yields.

Pruning. Pruning, as a silvicultural practice, refers to the removal of

the lower branches of the young trees so clear knot free wood can subsequently

grow over the branch stubs. Clear knot-free lumber has a higher

value. Pruning in landscaping and gardening is the practice of removing

diseased, non-productive, or otherwise unwanted portions from a plant.

EXERCISES

Exercise 1. Study the prefixes and suffixes, making up verbs; make

sure you know their meaning and use. Transform the following words into

verbs using suitable verbal components, where necessary. Translate the

derivatives. To make sure consult the dictionary.

integrity; dominant; danger; operation; alternative; scarification; excavator;

practice; rotation; less; regeneration; productive.

Exercise 2. In Unit 4 we often come across words with prefix re-.

Make sure you know all these words and can understand them in context.

A) Translate the following words

Verbs: to renew; to redress; to reestablish; to restore; to recreate; to

remove; to replace; to restrict; to recycle; to revive; to replant.

Nouns: reforestation; renewal; restocking; removal; recovery.

B) Find the sentence containing the derivatives with prefix re - in text

1 and translate them into Russian.

C) Make up your own situations with the words from the suggested

list.

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Exercise 3. Insert into the sentences the right word from the list in the

box.

a clearing saw; deep ploughing; density; dominant; fertility; final treatment;