The national symbols of the USA

American beliefs and values

There are certain ideals and values, rooted in the country's history, which many Americans share.

1) Freedom: Americans' understanding of freedom is shaped by the Founding Fathers' belief  that all people are equal and that the role of government is to protect each person's basic "inalienable" ɪnˈeɪlɪənəb(ə)l rights. Americans like to think of their country as a welcoming haven for those longing for freedom and opportunity. (high immigration) But this ideal has not always corresponded to reality. The black slavery in a society was not resolved until the Civil War. Reality continues to demonstrate that some social groups and individuals are not as free as others.

2) INDIVIDUALISM: Individualism, understood not only as self-reliance but also as economic self-sufficiency, has been a central theme in American history. In the early days, most Americans were farmers whose success depended not on cooperation with others but on their ability to confront the hardships of land and climate on their own. Even in today's society individualism persists. "Right to work" laws, which discourage union activity, are defended on the grounds that they protect the independence of the individual worker.

3) VOLUNTEERISM: Volunteers, usually unpaid, are highly motivated workers who organize themselves and others to solve a particular community problem, rather than waiting for someone else usually the government to do it. There are groups that hold clothing drives for the poor and homeless as well as groups that organize expensive money-raising dinners to save a symphony orchestra, for example. Volunteerism reflects Americans' optimistic pride in their ability to work out practical solutions themselves.

4) MOBILITY: Mobility in America is not a sign of aimlessness but optimism. Pioneers made the arduous ˈɑːdjʊəs тяжелые journey westward wɛstwəd because they believed they could establish a better life for themselves and their children. Now, Americans move from place to place with the same sense of optimism, hoping to secure a better job or enjoy a warmer climate.

5) PATRIOTISM ˈpeɪtrɪətɪz(ə)m: American patriotism is concentrated upon the particular historic event of the nation's creation as a new start and upon the idea of freedom which inspired the nation's beginnings. Foreign visitors to America can observe the prevalence распростране́ние of patriotic symbols: flags fly in suburban neighborhoods, bumper stickers announce "I'm proud to be American," the national anthem is played at every sporting event. National holidays such as Thanksgiving and Independence Day intensify усиливают the sense of national identity.

6) PROGRESS: The desire to progress by making use of opportunities is important to Americans. In this immigrant society, progress is personally measured as family progress over generations. The generation, motivated by the willingness to work hard and make sacrifices, pass these values to their children.

7) AMERICAN DREAM: is an expression often used to denote the life ideals of U.S. residents, both materially and spiritually. J. T. Adams expressed it as "the dream of a land in which life should

be better, richer, and fuller for every man with opportunities for each according to his abilities and achievement." It teaches Americans to believe that contentment kənˈtɛntm(ə)nt can be reached through the virtues, hard work, family loyalty, and faith in the free enterprise system. But the American Dream is not open to all. Discrimination are effective tools which have barred minorities from equal opportunities in all spheres.

Key facts and figures

America lies in the central part of the North American continent with the Atlantic Ocean to the East, the Pacific to the West, Canada to the North, and Mexico ˈmɛksɪkəʊ and the Gulf of Mexico to the South. The United States covers an area of 9,6 million square km. It has a population of about 300 million people. The states form a federation, each state being different from another in size and population. The largest states in area are Alaska, Texas, and California. The smallest state is Rhode (рёуд) Island. The state with the largest population is California followed by Texas, and New York. Only 480,907 people live on the plateaus and rugged ˈrəgid mountains of Wyoming, wʌɪˈəʊmɪŋ the least populous ˈpɒpjʊləs state.

The first people came to America from Asia, and they crossed the Bering Strait from Siberia to Alaska when the sea level dropped. These were the people whom Columbus later called " Indi­ans " because he was sure that he had come to the East Indies. Today there are about 1,5 million Native Americans in the United States, most of them live in the Western states — California, Arizona аре зоуна and New Mexico. About one-third of the Native Americans live in reservations, the land that was given them by the government.

Between 1620 and 1820 very large groups of peo­ple came to the United States not as willing immi­grants, but against their will. These black people were from West Africa. Today about 12 percent of America's population is Afro-American. In the 1820's many people in Europe, suffering from poverty, war and discrimination began to migrate to the United States. During the first half-century, most immigrants came from the coun­tries of north-western.

 From the very beginning of the formation of the new nation and through all American history there were outstanding political leaders and social reformers. George Washington is one of them.He wasthe commander-in-chief of the colonial forces during the War of Independence and first President of the United States. Another prominent ˈprɒmɪnənt выдающийся figure in American leadership is Abraham ˈeɪbrəham Lincoln who abolished slavery and reunited ˌriːjuːˈnaɪtɪd воссоединил the country leading the North against the South during the Civil War.

America has also given the world a number of brilliant inventors with interests in diverse scientific fields. Thomas Alva Edison who produced the first electric light bulb балб лампочка, Wright brothers' first airplane, Alexander Graham Bell's prototype telephone,. Neil нил Armstrong, commander of the ship, be­came the first person to walk on the moon's surface.

America is rich in its literature. Many of the two centuries' notable figures of American creative writing, such as Emily Dickinson, Mark Twain, Edgar Poe, Ernest Hemingway, John Steinbeck are well-known all over the world.

Since the beginning of the last century America has produced a number of great musicians whose achievements in the sphere of blues and jazz music spread the American sound worldwide. Among those are Louis ˈluːi Armstrong, Duke Ellington. Rock-n-roll with its famous stars such as Elvis Presley conquered ˈkɒŋkəd завоевать Europe.A large part of the American entertainment industry is taken by Hollywood. Though it is not definitely famous for creating real smart and intellectual movies it still helps to recreate the American Dream. Some of the most magical movies ever made are the work of Walt Disney.

Population

The United States is the third most populous country in the world, 308 million 745 thousand 538 people lived in the United States according to the General Census in April 2010. ˈsɛnsəs

The US population is very diverse in ethnic эфник and national terms, so the United States is reasonably called the immigrant nation - from 1790 to 1994. Almost 64 million immigrants arrived in the country from Europe, Latin America, Asia and Africa. California is most populated state; the most sparsely ˈspɑːsli populated is Wyoming wʌɪˈəʊmɪŋ

The racial makeup as estimated by the US Census перепись Bureau ˈbjʊərəʊ for 2011:

whites - 78.1% (including Hispanics həˈspænɪks (латинос) - 16.7%)

blacks - 13.1%

Indians, Aleuts (алеуты) əˈljuːt and Eskimos - 1.2%

Asians - 5.0%

Other nationalities - 2.3%

Religious composition:

Protestants - 46.5%

Roman Catholics - 20.8%,

Other Christians - 0.9%,

Muslims - 0.9%

Buddhists - 0.7%

Not belonging to any religious group - 22.8% (2014)

Languages

The most common language in the United States is English. It is owned by 215.4 million people out of more than 300 million living in the United States. English does not have official state status throughout the United States. At the legislative level, it is approved as a state in only 28 states and two territories (US Virgin вёджин Islands and Puerto Rico).

English (as the only one) (231.1)

Spanish (37.5)

Chinese (2.9)

Vietnamese language (1.4)

French language (1.3)

German (1,1)

Arabic (0.9)

 

Economic class

According to William Thompson’s model in America there are five classes

 

1) Lower class (14–20%)

Those who occupy poorly-paid positions or rely on government transfers.

 

2) Working class (32%)

Clerical, pink- and blue-collar workers with often low job security; common household incomes range from $16,000 to $30,000.

3) Lower middle class (32%)

Semi-professionals and craftsmen with some work autonomy; household incomes commonly range from $35,000 to $75,000.

4) Upper middle class ^[1] (15%)

Highly-educated (often with graduate degrees) professionals & managers with household incomes varying from the high 5-figure range to commonly above $100,000.

5) Upper class (1%)

Top-level executives, celebrities; income of $500,000.

 

4. The Melting Pot vs the Salad Bowl models

 

The USA is traditionally called a melting pot because with time, generations of immigrants have melted together: they have abandoned отказаться their cultures to become totally assimilated into American society. This idea of melting cultures together lasted through 19th and 20th centuries. Supporters of this model say that America needs to have a common culture in order to preserve a common national identity.
The salad bowl concept suggests that the integration of the many different cultures of United States residents combine like a salad. In this model, different American cultures are brought together—like salad ingredients—but do not form together into a single homogeneous culture; each culture keeps its own distinct qualities. This idea proposes a society of many individual cultures. Supporters of the salad bowl model argue that being "American" does not inherently tie a person to a single culture, though rather to citizenship and loyalty to the United States. One does not need to abandon their cultural heritage in order to be considered "American".

arguments (for salad):
1) it is impossible for a government to select a single moral-cultural standard. What gives the government an authority to deem полагать one culture the superior one while others shall perish? This division may lead to hate crimes.
2) Multiculturalism is democratic. Democracy is built upon the notion that individuals may hold different beliefs and that they have the right to do so.
3) People are more tolerant of other ethnics
4) Better for immigrants, people feel welcomed
5) People are allowed to practice their own culture
6) It values everyone’s heritages and differences and believes that these differences brought together will benefit the country and that the nation becomes stronger

arguments (for pot):
1) People are unified объединены [ˈju:nɪfaɪ
2) Possibly less conflicts and tensions between ethnic groups due to the fact that everyone first and foremost identifies as an American
3) Everyone is coming together to make one new and unique culture

 

 

Native American

 

Many thousands of years ago, late in the Ice Age, humans journeyed across the Bering land bridge, from Asia into Alaska. Their descendants explored along the west coast of North America. As early as 1000 BC, they had covered nearly the entire continent.

Over thousands of years, as they migrated across the continents, American Indians have developed a wide range of languages, customs, and civilizations.

Ten thousand years ago, when the Ice Age ended, changes in climate and increasing populations inspired some Native American tribes to experiment with growing different crops.
As early as about 5500 BC, tribes in Mexico cultivated corn and squash тыква. They raised turkeys, llamas, and guinea ɡɪni pigs for food and they hunted deer and bison. Many tribes on the coasts hunted sea mammals from boats and caught fish, using a variety of methods.

After 2000 BC, some Native Americans developed states, each governing thousands of people. They established extensive trade routes across the continents. And they used cargo rafts плот and other boats to ship their goods from one trading point to another. In South America, llamas provided transportation on land.

 

The Five Civilized Tribes – Cherokee tʃɛrəˈkiː, Choctaw, Muscogee, Chickasaw, Seminole.

Where they lived? 1) North-Eastern Tribes – in wigwams вигвам and longhouses; 2) Southeastern Tribes – in wattle & daub houses; 3) Great Plains Tribes – in tepees and grass houses; 4) Western Tribes – in pueblo, cliff dwellings жилье.

The Europeans started colonizing the Americas in order to cultivate new farmlands and create new jobs for the growing populations of Europe. They often fought Native American tribal nations for the land. And they had the advantage, because
1) Europeans had some immunities to their own diseases;

2) The Europeans had horses and guns, which overpowered the Native Americans' hand weapons and arrows in battle;
3) The Europeans' descendants outnumbered the native people.

 

Native American tribal nations resisted colonization, but eventually, many were forced to surrender səˈrɛndə сдать their lands. For example, in Mexico, Central America, and northern South America, the native people were forced to live as peasants pɛz(ə)nt

 and laborers, under Spanish rule.

 

Today Native American populations across both continents are once again on the rise. Native American leaders are achieving greater political success in fighting for the rights of their peoples.

 

Geography

The United States of America is the world's third largest country in size Total area ) ~ 10 000 000 sq km.

Located in North America, the country is bordered on the west by the Pacific Ocean and to the east by the Atlantic Ocean. Along the northern border is Canada and the southern border is Mexico.

The USA is a federal republic. There are 50 states and the District of Columbia with the capital Washington, D.C. 48 of these states make up the landmass between Mexico and Canada, while Alaska is separated from the US by Canada and Hawaii is located in the mid-Pacific. In addition to the states, the United States includes many dependent territories (16), such as Puerto Rico, the US Virgin Islands, Guam and others.

· The biggest state – Alaska

The smallest state – Rhode Island

 

· The oldest state – Delaware

The youngest state – Hawaii

 

· The most populated state – California, 40mln

· The least populated state – Wyoming

 

The eastern regions consist of hills and low mountains, while the central interior is a vast plain (called the Great Plains region). The west has high rugged mountain ranges (some of which are volcanic in the Pacific Northwest). Alaska also features rugged mountains as well as river valleys. Hawaii's landscape varies but is dominated by volcanic topography.

Relief: In the east of the country there are the Appalachian Mountains apəˌleɪ(t)ʃ(ə)n, to the west from which located the Central Lowlands. In the west are the high mountain ranges of the Cordilleras. The Rockies, part of the Cordilleras, is the largest chain in North America. Between these two mountain systems are wide plains, called the Great Plains.

· The lowest point in the country is in Death Valley which is at -86 meters

· The highest peak is Denali (Mt. McKinley) at 6,198 meters

 

Deserts: The Chihuahuan Desert  tʃɪˈwɑːwə (the largest hot desert in North America), The Sonoran Desert ˈsəʊnɑː (the second largest hot desert), The Mojave Desert  /moʊˈhɑːvi, (is the hottest desert in North America).

Lakes: In the north-east of the country, on the border with Canada, there is a group of large lakes connected by straits and rivers, this group is called the Great Lakes. The Great Lakes include Lake Superior, Lake Michigan, Lake Huron, Lake Erie and Lake Ontario. The largest lake in the west of the country is the Great Salt Lake, located in Utah /ˈjuːtɑː/. Another famous lake in the west is Lake Tahoe /ˈtɑːhoʊ/;.

Rivers:. The largest and most important rivers in the USA are: Mississippi, Missouri, Potomac, Colorado River kɒləˌrɑːdəʊ, Hudson River.

Like its topography, the climate of the U.S. also varies depending on location. It is considered mostly temperate but is tropical in Hawaii and Florida, arctic in Alaska, semiarid in the plains west of the Mississippi River and arid in the Great Basin of the southwest.

US National parks

The United States has 62 protected areas known as national parks that are operated by the National Park Service, an agency of the Department of the Interior (ɪnˈtɪərɪə). National parks must be established by an act of the United States Congress. A bill creating the first national park, Yellowstone, was signed into law by President Ulysses ( ˈjuːlɪsiːz ) S. Grant. The Organic Act of 1916 created the National Park Service "to conserve the scenery and the natural and historic objects..." Criteria (kraɪˈtɪərɪə) for the selection of national parks include natural beauty, unique geological features, unusual ecosystems, and recreational opportunities (though these criteria are not always considered together). National monuments, on the other hand, are frequently chosen for their historical or archaeological significance.

 

Death Valley National Park
Death Valley National Park sits in the westernmost region of California and partially spans into neighbouring Nevada.  It was proclaimed a national monument by President Hoover in 1933.
 Death Valley is the hottest and driest place in North America due to its lack of surface water and low relief. The park is home to a number of unique landforms. Within the five dune areas is Eureka ( ˌjʊ(ə)ˈriːkə) Sand Dunes, which, at 205 metres high, is California’s tallest. The park’s northern section is dotted with volcanic craters. Notable landmarks of the valley include Mosaic ( mə(ʊ)ˈzeɪɪk ) Canyon, Lake Badwater.

Yellowstone was the first natural area to be designated a National park in 1872 by President Ulysses S. Grant. Yellowstone was established in 1872 as America’s first National Park. It is spread in three states: Wyoming, Idaho, and Montana. The protected area is most famous for Old Faithful, its well-known geyser ( ˈɡiːzə ) that erupts like clockwork every 91 minutes, as well as many other geothermal features. Besides thermal features, Yellowstone’s vast wilderness includes vast meadows (ˈmedəʊz), mountain ranges, pine forests, lakes, waterfalls and the Grand Canyon of the Yellowstone. Yellowstone Lake is one of the largest high-elevation lakes in North America. The main reason of most tourists for visiting Yellowstone is observing the amazing wildlife: grizzly and black bear, bison (ˈbʌɪs(ə)n), etc.

RESULTS OF THE JOURNEYS

Columbus's "discovery" allowed the period of colonization to begin. This had a number of important effects. The eventual creation of the US is probably the most important of these effects.

 

 

11. British Colonies in North America

The 17th century marked the early beginnings of English rule in the Americas with the establishment of the Thirteen Colonies. The Thirteen Colonies were the colonies on the Atlantic coast of North America, starting with Virginia in 1607, and ending with Georgia in 1733. Each colony developed its own system of self-government

There were three types of colonies in North America:

1) Corporate ˈkɔːp(ə)rət– had a charter ˈtʃɑːtə устав given by the English monarch to stockholders акционеры. Virginia, Massachusetts Bay Colony

2) Proprietary colonies prəˈprʌɪət(ə)ri (proprietors were people appointed to govern there). Maryland – the first of this type; Pennsylvania – William Penn

3) Royal Colonies – under the direct authority of the king. New Hampshire, Georgia

Chronology:

England made its first successful efforts at the start of the 17th century.

The London Virginia Company created the first successful English overseas settlements at Jamestown in 1607. Its first years were extremely difficult, with very high death rates from disease and starvation, wars with local American Indians, and little gold. The colony survived and flourished by developing tobacco as a cash crop for the colony; it served as a beginning for the colonial state of Virginia.

The Puritans ˈpjʊərɪt(ə)n established the Massachusetts Bay Colony in 1629 with 400 settlers. They fled бежать England, and in America, they attempted to create a “nation of saints” or a “City upon a Hill”—an intensely religious community designed to be an example for all of Europe. The Puritan economy was based on the efforts of self-supporting farmsteads who traded only for goods they could not produce themselves. Along with agriculture, fishing, and logging, New England became an important mercantile mə ː k(ə)nt ʌɪ l and shipbuilding center, serving as the hub for trading between the southern colonies and Europe.

In 1664, England took over the Dutch colony of New Netherland, including New Amsterdam, and renamed it the Province of New York. Pennsylvania was founded in 1681 as a proprietary colony of the Quaker, William Penn.

The colonial South included the plantation colonies of the Chesapeake region—Virginia and Maryland—and the lower South colonies of Carolina and Georgia. Carolina was not settled until 1670. The original settlers in South Carolina established a lucrative прибыльный trade in provisions, deerskins, and American Indian captives пленники with the Caribbean Islands. The settlers came mainly from the English colony of Barbados and brought African slaves with them.

Indentured Servants – peoplefrom Europe who agreed to work for a number of years in exchange for their passage to America. They were hired by farmers, planters, and shopkeepers.

Indentured servitude рабство was a method of increasing the number of colonists, especially in the British colonies, as well as a system of labor to support the new colonies. In the 17th century, nearly two-thirds of English settlers came as indentured servants.

Indentured servitude was a major element of colonial labor economics from the 1620s until the American Revolution. As indentured servants became more expensive, their labor was replaced by African slaves.

New England Colonies:

Massachusetts Bay Colony

New Hampshire

Connecticut

 Rhode Island Colony

Middle Colonies:

Delaware Colony

Province of New York

Province of New Jersey

Province of Pennsylvania

Southern Colonies:

Colony of Virginia

Province of Maryland

Province of Carolina

Province of Georgia

 

The American Revolution

The Revolutionary War (1775-83), also known as the American Revolution, arose from growing tensions between residents of Great Britain’s 13 North American colonies and the colonial government, which represented the British crown.

Causes: Attempts by the British government to raise revenue ˈrɛvənjuː доход by taxing the colonies (notably the Stamp Act of 1765, the Townshend Acts of 1767 and the Tea Act of 1773) met with protest among many colonists, who resented негодовать their lack of representation in Parliament and demanded the same rights as other British subjects.

Biggest clashes столкновения preluding ˈprɛljuːd war: Boston Massacre (1770), Boston Tea Party (1773) (более подробно билет 13)

The tensions were only rising as the offended colonialists were forming secret organizations (among students, navy, African slaves, and other groups as merchants ˈməːtʃ(ə)nt куацы and artisans ремеслиник). During the first couple of years, before the first major battle, the American forces were mainly represented by people who weren’t military trained, but were certainly sure in their desire to gain independence from Britain. Many historians tend to think that this very drive led the colonialists to win against the well-trained numerous British army.

Major events: The First Continental Congress (September 1774, key figures - George Washington, John and Samuel Adams, Patrick Henry, John Jay) demanded independence from Britain, denounced осуждали taxation without representation представительство, issued a declaration of the rights.

On April 19, colonial militiamen mɪˈlɪʃəmən ополченцы clashed with British soldiers in the Battles of Lexington and Concord in Massachusetts, marking the start of the Revolutionary War.

The Second Continental Congress (May 1775, Philadelphia, the same as in the first one + Benjamin Franklin and Thomas Jefferson) voted to form a Continental Army, with Washington as its commander in chief tʃiːf главнокомандующий. The independence of the Parliament was declared.

On June 17, colonial forces inflicted нанести heavy casualties on the British regiment ˈrɛdʒɪm(ə)nt полк of General William Howe at Breed’s Hill in Boston. The engagement бой, known as the Battle of Bunker Hill, ended in British victory, but lent encouragement to the revolutionary cause.

On July 4, 1776, the Continental Congress voted to adopt the Declaration of Independence, drafted созданную by a five-man committee including Franklin and John Adams but written mainly by Jefferson.

Turning point: The Battle of Saratoga in 1777. American soldiers forced a British surrender сдаться. This led to France and Spain joining the war on the side of Americans. These powerful countries fought the British around the world.

The American commerce ˈkɒməːs raider ˈreɪdə налетчик John Paul Jones also won several naval battles over the British, but the French navy did most of the fighting at sea. The Americans tried to capture Canada several times, where many British military bases were located.

In 1781, Washington and French general Jean Rochambeau led an offensive вел наступление against British troops in Yorktown, Virginia (the Battle of Yorktown). When their soldiers lost this battle, the British surrendered.

End of war: The American Revolution came to an end in 1783 when a peace treaty договор was signed in Paris, France. In the Treaty of Paris, the British King, George III accepted the independence of the colonies and recognized the newly created nation as the United States of America.

The treaty also gave all the land which was west of the Appalachians ˌapəˌleɪ(t)ʃ(ə)n as far as the Mississippi River to the new country. This land would eventually become part of the US, and lead to the creation of 35 new states that now make up the contiguous United States.

 

15. The Declaration of Independence was ratified in 1776, July 4. It announced the separation of 13 North American British colonies from Great Britain.

The idea was to dissolve all political connection between Great Britain and American colonies and be Independent States (have full power to levy war, conclude peace, contract alliances, establish commerce, etc). The Congress nominated the Committee of Five (Thomas Jefferson – the main author, John Adams, Benjamin Franklin, Robert Livingston, Roger Sherman) to compose a declaration of independence. It was important that people resume their original liberty that had been taken away by destructive government. They fought tyranny of the British monarch (Britain was taxing and mistreating the colonies + the colonies had no representative in Parliament to vote or discuss laws) and wanted to establish a new government.

The most important ideas of the document are democracy, freedom, natural human rights, equality and limited government; a ruler should gain authority through the consent kənˈsɛnt

с общего согласия of the governed and protect the people’s rights.

Some of the ideas Jefferson used rested on Mason’s Declaration of Rights and J. Locke’s ideas (in his Treatise of civil government Locke describes the rights of people to life, liberty and property, and Jefferson the declaration of independence emphasizes the right to life, liberty and pursuit of happiness). The paragraph about slavery was deleted.

The document is still important. There are a lot of allusions, quotations of the Declaration of Independence used in newspapers, the document inspired the French during the French Revolution, encouraged the Spanish to overthrow свержение the Spanish Empire.

Very important consequences: the document gave birth to what is known as the United States of America, and it is still symbolic of American democracy and liberty. It allowed the Revolutionary War to be seen as a war between 2 countries instead of a civil war; allowed the Emancipation of black slaves; had a profound effect upon the Bill of Rights (which elaborates разработать the ideas given in the Declaration).

 

 

16. The Constitution of the United States established America’s national government and fundamental laws, and guaranteed certain basic rights for its citizens.

Articles of Confederation

America’s first constitution, the Articles of Confederation, was ratified in 1781, a time when the nation was a loose confederation of states, each operating like independent countries. The national government was comprised of a single legislature единый законодательный орган, the Congress of the Confederation; there was no president or judicial branch судебная власть. The Articles of Confederation gave Congress the power to govern foreign affairs, conduct war and regulate currency регулировать валюту; however, Congress had no authority to enforce its requests to the states for money or troops.

In 1786, Alexander Hamilton called for a constitutional convention конвенция to discuss the matter.

Debating the Constitution

Issues:

- state representation in legislature ˈlɛdʒɪslətʃə

->resolved by the Connecticut kəˈnetəkət Compromise, which proposed a bicameral baɪˈkæmərəl двухпалатный legislature with proportional representation of the states in House of Representatives and equal representation in the Senate.

- slavery

->it was decided that slaves would be counted as three-fifths of a person + Congress wouldn’t be allowed to prohibit the slave trade before 1808.

Ratifying the Constitution

By September 1787, the convention’s five-member Committee of Style (Hamilton, Madison, William Samuel Johnson of Connecticut, Gouverneur Morris of New York, Rufus King of Massachusetts) had drafted the final text of the Constitution. James Madison and Alexander Hamilton, with assistance from John Jay, wrote a series of essays to persuade people to ratify the Constitution. The 85 essays, known collectively as “ The Federalist ” (or “The Federalist Papers”), detailed how the new government would work.

Beginning on December 7, 1787, five states–Delaware, Pennsylvania, New Jersey, Georgia and Connecticut–ratified the Constitution. However, other states opposed the document as it lacked constitutional protection of basic political rights, such as freedom of speech, religion and the press. In February 1788, a compromise was reached with the assurance that amendments əˈmɛn(d)mənt поправки would be immediately proposed. The Constitution was thus ratified and it was agreed that government under the U.S. Constitution would begin on March 4, 1789. George Washington was inaugurated as America’s first president.

The Bill of Rights

In 1789, Madison introduced amendments.Ten of these amendments, known as the Bill of Rights became part of the Constitution on December 10, 1791. The Bill of Rights guarantees individuals certain basic protections as citizens (see above), including the right to bear and keep arms; the right to peaceably assemble; protection from unreasonable search and seizure siːʒə захват; and the right to a speedy and public trial судебный процесс by an impartial беспристрасный jury.

 

Билет 17: The Bill of Rights

The United States Bill of Rights comprises the first ten amendments поправки to the United States Constitution. The Bill of Rights amendments add to the Constitution specific guarantees of personal freedoms and rights, clear limitations on the government's power in judicial and other proceedings, and explicit declarations that all powers not specifically granted to the U.S.

Created:      September 25, 1789

Ratified:     December 15, 1791

Author(s):   1st United States Congress, mainly James Madison

The entire Bill of Rights was created to protect rights the original citizens believed were naturally theirs, including:

Freedom of Religion

· Freedom of Speech, Press, Petition pɪˈtɪʃ(ə)n, and Assembly

Even unpopular expression is protected from government suppression səˈprɛʃ(ə)n подавление,  or censorship.

· Privacy

​        Due Process of Law

​        Equality Before the Law

​The right to be treated equally before the law, regardless of social status.  

The First Amendment provides several rights protections: to express ideas through speech and the press, to assemble or gather with a group to protest and to ask the government to fix problems. It also protects the right to religious beliefs and practices.

The Second protects the right to keep and bear arms.

The Third prevents government from forcing homeowners to allow soldiers to use their homes. Before the Revolutionary War, laws gave British soldiers the right to take over private homes.

Fourth: bars запрещать the government from unreasonable search and seizure ˈsiːʒə  захват of an individual or their private property.

Fifth: provides several protections for people accused of crimes. A person cannot be tried twice for the same offense. People have the right against self-incrimination and cannot be imprisoned without due process of law.

Sixth: providesthe right to a speedy and public trial, trial by an impartial ɪmˈpɑːʃ(ə)l jury in criminal cases, and to be informed of criminal charges. Witnesses must face the accused, and the accused is allowed his or her own witnesses and to be represented by a lawyer.

Seventh: extends the right to a jury trial in Federal civil cases.

Eighth: bars excessive bail залог and fines and cruel and unusual punishment.

Ninth: states that listing specific rights in the Constitution does not mean that people do not have other rights that have not been spelled out прописаны.

Tenth: says that the Federal Government only has those powers delegated делегированы in the Constitution. If it isn’t listed, it belongs to the states or to the people.

 

Thomas Jefferson

Jefferson was born in 1743 in Virginia. Jefferson became one of the most learned lawyers in America. He had a reputation of one of the most eloquent ɛləkwənt красноречивый advocates of the American cause. Thomas Jefferson is considered the primary author of the Declaration of Independence.

Congress nominated the Committee of Five (John Adams, Benjamin Franklin, Thomas Jefferson, Robert Livingston, and Roger Sherman) to compose a declaration of independence. Jefferson was chosen to author the declaration's first draft. Some of his language and many of his ideas drew from well-known political works, such as George Mason's Declaration of Rights. He also relied on the ideas of Enlightenment (John Lock’s ideas) His ultimate goal was to express the unity of Americans against the tyranny of Britain. Congress accepted the document. After authoring the Declaration of Independence, Jefferson returned to Virginia, where he served as a member of the Virginia House of Delegates. Jefferson wrote the Virginia Statute for Religious Freedom, which established freedom of religion and the separation of church and state. Although the document was not adopted as Virginia state law for another 9 years, it was one of Jefferson's proudest life accomplishments.

As vice president

Jefferson wrote A Manual of Parliamentary Practice, one of the most useful guides to legislative ˈlɛdʒɪslətɪv proceedings, and served as the president of the American Philosophical Society.

In the presidential election of 1800, the Federalists refused to back Adams (Federalist Party) and cleared the way for the Republican candidates Jefferson and Aaron Burr who tied for first place. The House of Representatives selected Jefferson to serve as the 3rd U.S. president (1801-1809), with Burr as his vice president. The election of Jefferson was a landmark of world history, as it was the first peacetime transfer of power from one party to another in a modern republic (from Federalists to Republicans).

Jefferson's accomplishments достижения:

· reduced the size of the armed forces and government bureaucracy bjʊ(ə)ˈrɒkrəsi

· lowered the national debt in just first 2 years in office

· stabilized the U.S. economy.

Louisiana Purchase – his most significant accomplishment as president. He acquired land stretching from the Mississippi River to the Rocky Mountains for the bargain price of $15 million and doubled the size of the nation.

Tripoli Pirates. Jefferson put an end to the problem of Tripoli pirates from North Africa disrupting American shipping in the Mediterranean. During the Barbary War, Jefferson forced the pirates to capitulate by deploying new American warships.

Jefferson won re-election in 1804, but his 2nd term in office proved much more difficult and less productive. Britain and France attempted to prevent American commerce with the other power by harassing American shipping, and Britain in particular sought to impress American sailors into the British Navy. In response, Jefferson passed the Embargo Act, suspending all trade with Europe. It wrecked the American economy as exports crashed significantly. The embargo also led to the War of 1812 with Great Britain after Jefferson left office.

 

 

 

John Adams (1735–1826)

John Adams – the 1st vice president of the USA and the 2nd president. His son, John Quincy Adams, was the nation's 6th president (a member of the opposition party, the Democratic-Republicans).

 

John Adams was a direct descendant of Puritan colonists from the Massachusetts Bay Colony. He studied at Harvard University. In 1774, he served on the First Continental Congress and helped draft the Declaration of Independence. He was an Enlightenment political theorist and he also opposed slavery.

 

Political Career

It was Adams’ opposition to the Stamp Act of 1765 (Гербовый акт, Акт о гербовом сборе) which made him well known in Massachusetts. The Stamp Act was a very unpopular system of levying taxes on stamped documents. It was used not to finance colonies but to finance the British war against France. He authored the Braintree Instructions, which argued that the Act should be opposed because it denied colonists 2 important freedoms – the right to be taxed by consent and the right to be judged by one’s peers.

Boston Trial Massacre

In 1770 Adams represented the British soldiers on trial for killing 5 civilians in the Boston Massacre (Бостонская резня). Because he believed in the right of everyone to have representation and a fair trial, he agreed to represent the British soldiers, even though it made him unpopular with public opinion. The case became an important exposition of Adams skill as a lawyer and certain principles of justice and fairness. Adams argued if we lose the right to a presumption of innocence, then it will lead to a loss of belief in natural justice. Reaction to Adams's defense of the soldiers was hostile, and his law practice suffered greatly. However, later he had his reputation as a courageous, generous and fair man.

 

Adams was elected to the Massachusetts Assembly and was one of 5 to represent the colony at the First Continental Congress in 1774. In 1776, Congress approved his resolution proposing that the colonies each adopt independent governments. He wrote the preamble to this resolution, setting the stage for the formal passage of the Declaration of Independence. Congress appointed Adams, Thomas Jefferson, Benjamin Franklin, Robert R. Livingston and Roger Sherman, to draft the declaration.

 

In 1779, Adams was one of the American diplomats sent to negotiate the Treaty of Paris, which brought an end to the Revolutionary War. After the war, he remained in Europe, and arranged treaties of commerce with several European nations. In 1785, he became the 1st U.S. minister to England.

He was one of the authors of the Massachusetts Constitution (1780). The constitution was organized as a structure of chapters, sections, and articles and became a model for the Constitution of the USA, drafted in 1787.

 

In 1789, he took part in the America's first presidential election. As expected, George Washington received the highest number of electoral votes and was elected the 1^st US president. Adams became Vice President. The same result occurred in the 1792 election.

 

In 1796, Adams was elected as the Federalist nominee for president. Jefferson led the opposition for the Democratic-Republican Party. Adams won the election, becoming the 2nd president of the USA. During that time, Britain and France were at war and these conflicts were causing political difficulties for the US. Adams wanted the US government to stay out of the European war but the French saw America as Britain's junior partner and began seizing American merchant ships that were trading with the British. In order to build diplomatic relations with the French, he sent an American commission to France in July 1797 to negotiate problems that were threatening to break out into war. The French demanded bribes (≈ взятки) before formal negotiations could begin and this offended the Americans who left without negotiations.This failed negotiation attempt led to an undeclared war called the Quasi-War (1798-1800). Adams’ popularity as the president declined considerably following this event and he lost the re-election in 1800, with only a few less electoral votes than Jefferson, who became president.

 

 

The New Republic

The ratification of the Constitution closed an era of protest, revolution, and political experimentation. The anti-Federalists lost the ratification battle, but because of them the nationalists had to promise to add a bill of rights to the Constitution. Ratification was possible in part because the conventions attached to their acceptance of the document suggestions for the amendments that became the Bill of Rights. From more than 200 proposals submitted by the state conventions, Madison narrowed the list to 17. Of those proposals, 12 were approved by Congress in 1791, and 10 were quickly ratified and became the “ Bill of Rights. ”

The United States began to function on March 4, 1789, with 8 senators and 13 representatives; no quorum was achieved until sometime in until April. Congress had to write its own rules—there were only precedents borrowed from the British, and that was done very cautiously. The State Department consisted of Secretary of State Jefferson and a couple of clerks. Jobs and responsibilities of the four cabinet officers—secretaries of State, Treasury, and War and the attorney general—and their “departments” had to be invented, and under the Constitution Congress was required to create a federal court system; the Constitution named only one specifically—the Supreme Court—and even there the number of justices was left to Congress to determine.

Because America had been governed by congresses or assemblies since 1775, that branch probably had the easiest time finding its way. Its first major act was to create a federal court system, which was accomplished by the Judiciary dʒʊˈdɪʃ(ə)ri Act of 1789.

Federalists and Republicans: The Rise of Political Parties

The Federalist party evolved out of those who supported adoption of the Constitution (leaders: John Adams, Alexander Hamilton, John Jay, and Washington). The anti-federalists evolved into the Democratic Republican party (leader – Thomas Jefferson, later Madison).

Abolitionism

As the enslavement of African-Americans became a preferred aspect of the United States' society, people began questioning the morality of bondage. Throughout the 18th and 19th centuries, the abolition отмена abəˈlɪʃ(ə)n movement grew—first through the religious teachings of the Quakers квакеры and later, through anti-slavery organizations.

Three major philosophies of the abolitionist movement: moral suasion ˈsweɪʒ(ə)n увещевание; moral suasion and political action; resistance through physical action.

Moral Suasion Many abolitionists believed in the pacifist approach to ending slavery. Abolitionists such as William Wells Brown and William Lloyd Garrison believed that people would be willing to change their acceptance of slavery if they could see the morality of enslaved people. Abolitionists published slave narratives, such as Harriet Jacobs' Incidents in the Life of a Slave Girl and newspapers such as The North Star and The Liberator. Speakers such as Maria Stewart spoke on lecture to persuade people to understand the horrors of slavery.

Moral Suasion and Political Action Towards the end of the 1830s, many abolitionists were moving away from the philosophy of moral suasion. Throughout the 1840s, there was the burning question: how can African-Americans use both moral suasion and the political system to bring an end to slavery. The Liberty Party was established in 1839 by a group of abolitionists that wanted to pursue pəˈsju добиться emancipation of enslaved people via the political process. Although African-Americans were not able to participate in the electoral process, Frederick Douglass was also a firm believer that moral suasion should be followed by political action, Douglass turned his efforts to the Republican Party by writing editorials that would persuade its members to think about the emancipation of slavery.

American beliefs and values

There are certain ideals and values, rooted in the country's history, which many Americans share.

1) Freedom: Americans' understanding of freedom is shaped by the Founding Fathers' belief  that all people are equal and that the role of government is to protect each person's basic "inalienable" ɪnˈeɪlɪənəb(ə)l rights. Americans like to think of their country as a welcoming haven for those longing for freedom and opportunity. (high immigration) But this ideal has not always corresponded to reality. The black slavery in a society was not resolved until the Civil War. Reality continues to demonstrate that some social groups and individuals are not as free as others.

2) INDIVIDUALISM: Individualism, understood not only as self-reliance but also as economic self-sufficiency, has been a central theme in American history. In the early days, most Americans were farmers whose success depended not on cooperation with others but on their ability to confront the hardships of land and climate on their own. Even in today's society individualism persists. "Right to work" laws, which discourage union activity, are defended on the grounds that they protect the independence of the individual worker.

3) VOLUNTEERISM: Volunteers, usually unpaid, are highly motivated workers who organize themselves and others to solve a particular community problem, rather than waiting for someone else usually the government to do it. There are groups that hold clothing drives for the poor and homeless as well as groups that organize expensive money-raising dinners to save a symphony orchestra, for example. Volunteerism reflects Americans' optimistic pride in their ability to work out practical solutions themselves.

4) MOBILITY: Mobility in America is not a sign of aimlessness but optimism. Pioneers made the arduous ˈɑːdjʊəs тяжелые journey westward wɛstwəd because they believed they could establish a better life for themselves and their children. Now, Americans move from place to place with the same sense of optimism, hoping to secure a better job or enjoy a warmer climate.

5) PATRIOTISM ˈpeɪtrɪətɪz(ə)m: American patriotism is concentrated upon the particular historic event of the nation's creation as a new start and upon the idea of freedom which inspired the nation's beginnings. Foreign visitors to America can observe the prevalence распростране́ние of patriotic symbols: flags fly in suburban neighborhoods, bumper stickers announce "I'm proud to be American," the national anthem is played at every sporting event. National holidays such as Thanksgiving and Independence Day intensify усиливают the sense of national identity.

6) PROGRESS: The desire to progress by making use of opportunities is important to Americans. In this immigrant society, progress is personally measured as family progress over generations. The generation, motivated by the willingness to work hard and make sacrifices, pass these values to their children.

7) AMERICAN DREAM: is an expression often used to denote the life ideals of U.S. residents, both materially and spiritually. J. T. Adams expressed it as "the dream of a land in which life should

be better, richer, and fuller for every man with opportunities for each according to his abilities and achievement." It teaches Americans to believe that contentment kənˈtɛntm(ə)nt can be reached through the virtues, hard work, family loyalty, and faith in the free enterprise system. But the American Dream is not open to all. Discrimination are effective tools which have barred minorities from equal opportunities in all spheres.

Key facts and figures

America lies in the central part of the North American continent with the Atlantic Ocean to the East, the Pacific to the West, Canada to the North, and Mexico ˈmɛksɪkəʊ and the Gulf of Mexico to the South. The United States covers an area of 9,6 million square km. It has a population of about 300 million people. The states form a federation, each state being different from another in size and population. The largest states in area are Alaska, Texas, and California. The smallest state is Rhode (рёуд) Island. The state with the largest population is California followed by Texas, and New York. Only 480,907 people live on the plateaus and rugged ˈrəgid mountains of Wyoming, wʌɪˈəʊmɪŋ the least populous ˈpɒpjʊləs state.

The first people came to America from Asia, and they crossed the Bering Strait from Siberia to Alaska when the sea level dropped. These were the people whom Columbus later called " Indi­ans " because he was sure that he had come to the East Indies. Today there are about 1,5 million Native Americans in the United States, most of them live in the Western states — California, Arizona аре зоуна and New Mexico. About one-third of the Native Americans live in reservations, the land that was given them by the government.

Between 1620 and 1820 very large groups of peo­ple came to the United States not as willing immi­grants, but against their will. These black people were from West Africa. Today about 12 percent of America's population is Afro-American. In the 1820's many people in Europe, suffering from poverty, war and discrimination began to migrate to the United States. During the first half-century, most immigrants came from the coun­tries of north-western.

 From the very beginning of the formation of the new nation and through all American history there were outstanding political leaders and social reformers. George Washington is one of them.He wasthe commander-in-chief of the colonial forces during the War of Independence and first President of the United States. Another prominent ˈprɒmɪnənt выдающийся figure in American leadership is Abraham ˈeɪbrəham Lincoln who abolished slavery and reunited ˌriːjuːˈnaɪtɪd воссоединил the country leading the North against the South during the Civil War.

America has also given the world a number of brilliant inventors with interests in diverse scientific fields. Thomas Alva Edison who produced the first electric light bulb балб лампочка, Wright brothers' first airplane, Alexander Graham Bell's prototype telephone,. Neil нил Armstrong, commander of the ship, be­came the first person to walk on the moon's surface.

America is rich in its literature. Many of the two centuries' notable figures of American creative writing, such as Emily Dickinson, Mark Twain, Edgar Poe, Ernest Hemingway, John Steinbeck are well-known all over the world.

Since the beginning of the last century America has produced a number of great musicians whose achievements in the sphere of blues and jazz music spread the American sound worldwide. Among those are Louis ˈluːi Armstrong, Duke Ellington. Rock-n-roll with its famous stars such as Elvis Presley conquered ˈkɒŋkəd завоевать Europe.A large part of the American entertainment industry is taken by Hollywood. Though it is not definitely famous for creating real smart and intellectual movies it still helps to recreate the American Dream. Some of the most magical movies ever made are the work of Walt Disney.

Population

The United States is the third most populous country in the world, 308 million 745 thousand 538 people lived in the United States according to the General Census in April 2010. ˈsɛnsəs

The US population is very diverse in ethnic эфник and national terms, so the United States is reasonably called the immigrant nation - from 1790 to 1994. Almost 64 million immigrants arrived in the country from Europe, Latin America, Asia and Africa. California is most populated state; the most sparsely ˈspɑːsli populated is Wyoming wʌɪˈəʊmɪŋ

The racial makeup as estimated by the US Census перепись Bureau ˈbjʊərəʊ for 2011:

whites - 78.1% (including Hispanics həˈspænɪks (латинос) - 16.7%)

blacks - 13.1%

Indians, Aleuts (алеуты) əˈljuːt and Eskimos - 1.2%

Asians - 5.0%

Other nationalities - 2.3%

Religious composition:

Protestants - 46.5%

Roman Catholics - 20.8%,

Other Christians - 0.9%,

Muslims - 0.9%

Buddhists - 0.7%

Not belonging to any religious group - 22.8% (2014)

Languages

The most common language in the United States is English. It is owned by 215.4 million people out of more than 300 million living in the United States. English does not have official state s