Видовременная система иностранного языка: активный и пассивный залог.

Действительный и страдательный залог

    В английском языке, как и в русском, есть 2 залога: действительный (Active) и страдательный (Passive).

Сравните два предложения:

    I write a letter. The letter is written by me.

Я пишу письмо.        Письмо написано мной.

    В первом предложении подлежащее I (я), оно является деятелем (я пишу), значит, залог действительный. Во втором предложении подлежащее letter (письмо), но деятелем является не подлежащее, а дополнение (написано мной). Значит, если подлежащее в предложении не производит действие, а испытывает его со стороны другого члена предложения, то сказуемое употребляется в страдательном залоге.

    Passive Voice образуется при помощи вспомогательного глагола

to be + причастие II смыслового глагола.

 

    Причастие II (Participle II) у правильных глаголов совпадает с формой Past Simple (инфинитив + ed), у неправильных – смотрите 3-ий столбик таблицы неправильных глаголов.

    Обратите внимание, что Passive Voice отличается от страдательного залога в русском языке. В русском языке только прямое дополнение может стать подлежащим в предложении, где сказуемое употребляется в страдательном залоге.

    Например: Он дал мне книгу. Книга дана мне.

    Но мы не сможем изменить предложение таким образом, чтобы косвенное дополнение «мне» стало подлежащим.

В английском языке не только косвенное, но и предложное дополнение может стать подлежащим в предложении, где сказуемое выражено в страдательным залогом:

- He gave me a book. Он дал мне книгу.

– The book was given to me. Книга дана мне.

 – I was given a book. Мне дали книгу.

 

PRESENT SIMPLE PASSIVE

    Утвердительная         

I am given a book. You are given a book.  He (she, it) is given a

book.

    Вопросительная

Am I given a book?

Are you given a book?

Is he (she, it) given a

book?

    Отрицательная

I am not given a book.

You aren't given a book.

He (she, it) isn't given a

book.

 

PAST SIMPLE PASSIVE

    Утвердительная

I was given a book.

You were given a book.

He (she, it) was given a

book.

    Вопросительная

Was I given a book?

Were you given a book?

Was he (she, it) given a book?

    Отрицательная

I wasn't given a book.

You weren't given a

book.

He (she, it) wasn't given a

book.

 

FUTURE SIMPLE PASSIVE

    Утвердительная

You will be given a book.

    Вопросительная

Will you be given a

book?

    Отрицательная You won't be given a

book.

 

PRESENT PERFECT PASSIVE

    Утвердительная

You have been given a book.

    Вопросительная

Have you been given a book?

    Отрицательная

You haven’t been given a book.

 

PAST PERFECT PASSIVE

    Утвердительная

You had been given a book.

    Вопросительная

Had you been given a book?

    Отрицательная

You hadn’t been given a book.

 

FUTURE PERFECT PASSIVE

    Утвердительная

You will have been given a book.

    Вопросительная

Will you have been given a book?

    Отрицательная

You won’t have been given a book.

 

СПОСОБЫ ПЕРЕВОДА PASSIVE VOICE

НА РУССКИЙ ЯЗЫК

1. Страдательным залогом:

The book was written in 1905. Книга была написана в 1905 г.

2. Возвратным глаголом: The book is being translated. Книга

переводится.

3. Неопределенно-личным предложением:

I was given a book. Мне дали книгу.

Запомните! it is said – говорят, it is known – известно

Обратите внимание, что в предложении, где сказуемое употребляется в страдательном залоге, вводится деятель by, а орудие – with:

The letter is written by me. Письмо написано мной.

The letter is written with the pen. Письмо написано ручкой.

 

Упражнение 1. Укажите видовременную форму сказуемых и

переведите предложения на русский язык.

1. Our Institute was founded in 1875. 2. Every year 5000 students are

enrolled in the first year. 3. The foreign language laboratory will be

equipped with tape-recorders next term. 4. The text will have been

translated by tomorrow. 5. He has already been introduced to you.

6. The problem is being discussed now.

Упражнение 2. Поставьте глаголы в нужную видовременную

форму.

1. Different subjects (to be discussed) at the University. 2. The

meeting (to be organized) tomorrow. 3. Many discussions (to be held) at

our faculty last term. 4. On the 17th of November the party (to be

organized) to which different foreign delegations (to be invited). 5. The

United Kingdom (to be situated) to the North-West of the continent of

Europe.

Упражнение 3. Употребите соответствующую конструкцию со

страдательным залогом. Model: We write a letter. – The letter is

written by us.

1. They will divide the text into 3 parts. 2. We founded this society

last year. 3. The students passed the exams successful._

    Неличные формы глагола, инфинитивные конструкции

Само обозначение «неличные» уже указывает на то, что они не могут выражать никакую личность/персонажа/исполнителя действий. Соответственно, такие глаголы никогда не могут быть самостоятельными сказуемыми, но часто используются в качестве одной из составных частей сложных сказуемых.

Example.

· Jessica and Kevin want to buy their own apartment – Джессика и Кевин хотят купить собственную квартиру.

· She likes to ride horse – Ей нравится ездить на лошадях.

· I stopped watching TV five years ago – Я прекратил смотреть телевизор пять лет назад.

    Виды неличных глагольных форм

Согласно грамматическим справочникам, выделяют три неличные формы глагола в английском языке: инфинитив, герундий и причастие. Рассмотрим по отдельности значение и функции каждого типа конструкций.

    Инфинитив – это базовая или словарная форма глагола. Именно от инфинитива образуются все остальные глагольные формы. В словарях инфинитивы глаголов, как правило, приводятся с частицей to. Но в диалогах и текстах часто можно встретить предложения, в которых частица to не фигурирует.

Отсутствие to продиктовано следующими правилами:

· Применение модальных глаголов (кроме have to, ought to);

· Использование глаголов-выразителей чувств (feel, hear, see и т.п.);

· Наличие таких глаголов, как let, will, have, make;

· Соседство с устойчивыми сочетаниями had better, would rather.

Example.

· Let them speak – Дай им сказать.

· I heard them speak – Я слышал, как они говорили.

· She can speak Arabic – Она умеет говорить на арабском.

· They would rather play on the computer than watch TV – Они бы лучше предпочли поиграть на компьютере, чем смотреть телевизор.

Синтаксические роли инфинитива.

    Помимо участия в построении сказуемого, он может выступать и как подлежащее, и как определение, и как дополнение, и как обстоятельство.

· She came to congratulate him – Она пришла поздравить его.

· To work for the company is very difficult – Работать на эту компанию очень трудно.

· I was the first to come – Я был первым пришедшим.

    Как видно из примеров, инфинитив – универсальная конструкция, при помощи которой образуются неопределенно-личные и личные предложения в английском языке.

    Упражнение 1. Вставьте подходящую по смыслу форму инфинитива: A) Passive или Active, В) Indefinite или Perfect:

А. 1. The lecturer wants.... The student wants... (to under­stand, to be understood). 2. We expected the meeting... next month. He expected... the attention of the audience (to hold, to be held). 3. Some changes had.... He wanted... some changes in the project (to make, to be made). 4. There were a lot of things.... He was nowhere... (to see, to be seen).

B. 1. It's good... work for the day (to finish, to have finished). 2. She admits... the same mistake in her previous paper (to make, to have made). 3. He was sorry not... the idea earlier (to give up, to have given up). 4. Many nations claim... defending democ­racy (to be, to have been). 5. She confessed... the man before (to see, to have seen). 6. The negotiations seem... to an end (to come, to have come). 7. The relations between the two countries seem... the lowest point (to reach, to have reached).

    Упражнение 2. Замените придаточные предложения инфинитивами:

1. Не was sorry when he heard of your disappointment. 2. Do you understand what you have to do? 3. He hopes that he will get the information tomorrow. 4. We should be sorry if we heard bad reports of him. 5. The candidate did not expect that he would pass the interview (собеседование). 6. Do not promise that you will do it, if you are not sure of success. 7. He was annoyed when he heard that the Conservative party got in again. 8. She was sorry than she had missed the beginning of the lecture. 9. We must wait till we. hear the examination results before we make any plans. 10. She is happy that she has found such a simple solution to this difficult problem.

Примечание: частица “to” перед глаголом является признаком, указывающим на инфинитив. Однако в ряде случаев инфинитив употребляется без частицы “to”: после модальных и вспомогательных глаголов; после глагола let( позволять, разрешать) и глагола make (заставлять) в действительном залоге; после выражений had better (лучше бы), would rather (предпочел бы), would sooner (скорее бы).

 

    Герундий – это глагольная форма, выражающая процессы действий, и обладающая некоторыми признаками существительных. Для русского языка это грамматическое явление не имеет аналогов.

    Образуется герундий путем присоединения окончания –ing, по которому его и можно легко опознать в предложении. Как и инфинитив, данная форма может выражать подлежащее, дополнение, обстоятельство, определение и т.д. К слову, инфинитив и герундий часто соперничают за употребление в предложении, о чем подробно можно прочесть в соседнем материале.

       Example.

· He likes fishing on the lake Baikal – Он любит рыбачить на озере Байкал.

· Singing is good for your health – Пение полезно для здоровья.

· I have finished preparing for presentation of my project. - Я закончил подготовку к презентации моего проекта.

        

    Обратите внимание, что на русский язык герундий переводится как глаголами, так и именами существительными Герундий – это неличная глагольная форма, которая обладает как свойствами существительного, так и свойствами глагола. По форме герундий совпадает с причастием: Reading; Selling; Making.

 

Герундий может служить в предложении:

подлежащим;

именной частью составного сказуемого;

частью составного глагольного сказуемого;

определением;

прямым дополнением;

предложным косвенным дополнением;

обстоятельством.

    Упражнение. Определите функцию герундия в данных предложениях:

 

1. Linda Lawson is proud of Running the company.

2. The main task is Satisfying consumers’ needs.

3. Making plans is necessary in every business.

4. He is afraid of Running risks.

5. Printer is an instrument for Typing papers.

6. Our director likes Subscribing scientific journals.

7. We solved the problem by Writing the letter.

8. Arranging meetings is Sally’s duty.

9. They are interested in Registering the company.

10. Rebecca continued Discussing the matter.

 

    Герундий часто употребляется после предлогов: After; before; instead of; for; of; by и т. д., а также глаголов, за которыми следуют предлоги: Be fond of; be tired of; think of И других.

Так же как и инфинитив, герундий наиболее часто используется в функции дополнения после глагола-сказуемого. Следует помнить, после каких глаголов употребляется герундий, а после каких – инфинитив.

аголами, так и именами существительными

    Английские причастия относятся к настоящему или прошедшему времени, и помимо глагольных функций, обладают свойствами прилагательных и наречий. В русском языке им соответствуют причастия и деепричастия.

В первую очередь, причастия известны тем, что участвуют в построении сложных составных сказуемых времен перфект и континиус. При этом причастие настоящего времени по форме схоже с герундием, так как тоже образуется с помощью добавления –ing к инфинитиву. Причастие прошедшего времени строится по формуле «инфинитив + окончание –ed» или же имеет устойчивую конструкцию, характерную для неправильных глаголов (3 форма).

 

Example.

 

· I’ve been playing this computer game for 3 hours – Я играл в эту компьютерную игру 3 часа.

· She has just sent the fax – Она только что отправила этот факс.

В предложении причастия также выполняют функции определений и обстоятельств.

* We looked at the singing Mary – Мы смотрели на поющую Мэри.

· He lived in a house built 60 years ago – Он жил в доме, построенном 60 лет назад.

· Traveling in Europe, I saw many small towns and villages – Путешествуя по Европе, я видел множество маленьких городков и деревень.

           Упражнение 1. Заполните пропуски в данных предложениях одним из причастий, указанных ниже:

1. The students were talking … exams.

A) discussed

B) discussing

C) having discussed

2. We received a new … edition of the book.

A) upgraded

B) upgrading

C) having upgraded

3. Dorothy was reading a book … by her.

A) bought

B) buying

C) having bought

4. The director ordered computers … by “Song”.

A) produced

B) producing

C) having produced

5. Everybody is pleased with the firm … this equipment.

A) provided

B) providing

C) having provided

6. The new models of TV sets … by this engineer are very popular.

A) designed

B) designing

C) having designed

7. The Chief Researcher was working much … that problem.

A) investigated

B) investigating

C) having investigated

8. You shouldn’t buy goods … in that company. Some of them are faulty.

a) made

B) making

C) having made

9. I liked all the cosmetics … in the catalogue.

A) described

B) describing

C) having described

10. Stella translated all the texts … texts on economics.

A) included

B) including

C) having included

    Упражнение 2. Переведите данные предложения с русского на английский язык, используя неличные формы глагола: герундий, инфинитив, причастие I и причастие II.

1. Джон Рэй решил предоставить скидку на данный вид услуг.

2. Он устал ждать решения.

3. Менеджер обещал доставить товары вовремя.

4. Полученный результат бизнес-операции был удовлетворительным.

5. Менеджеры спорили, обсуждая условия оплаты.

6. Тони Дэвис предложил составить каталог продукции.

7. Вы согласились помочь главному инженеру?

8. Директор этой компании боится рисковать.

9. Мы выпустили эту модель, чтобы получить прибыль.

10. Они старались назначить встречу на 23 марта.

Тема 2.  Чтение научных текстов и статей по специальности, пересказ и обсуждение прочитанной информации (20 ч.)

 Задание 1. Ознакомительное чтение с извлечением основной информации.

       Источник: «Вопросы образования». -  №1. -  2016 - на английском языке.

    На сайте журнала все статьи этого выпуска представлены как на русском, так и на английском языке.

Задание 1.1.. Подготовить аннотацию статьи на английском языке.

 

 

    Задание 2. Поисковое чтение по указанным критериям поиска с выявлением специфической информации.

Tatyana A. SULTANOVA

 

Readiness of a School Teacher for Realization of Prognostic Activity:

Monitoring Results

Tatyana A. SULTANOVA

Orenburg State University, Orenburg, Russia

Abstract. The article reveals the importance of readiness of a school teacher for

prognostic activity. The content of such category as “readiness for prognostic activity” is explained as

a personal quality of a subject and a part of activity. Structurally the readiness of a school teacher

for prognostic activity is presented through axiological, cognitive, praxiological and reflective

components. Some aspects of monitoring results of readiness of a school teacher for educational

prognostication are presented.

Keywords: prognostic activity, educational prognostication, readiness for

prognostic activity, research of readiness for prognostication.

Introduction

Educational situation in Russian schools is characterized with

growing dynamics. This circumstance is connected with transition to new

educational standards and leads to vital strategic and tactical changes in the

activity of an educational organization. This period is linked to change of

priorities, renovation of aims and content of general education, improvement

of teaching methods, upbringing and development of pupil’s personality. But

also this period is accompanied by certain risks. The present situation

demands a teacher with a new professional position which will let him or her

control the educational process systematically.1 We assume that qualitative

change of pedagogic activity accompanied by prognostic component will

contribute to solution of this problem.

Prognostication in itself is a theoretic way of reflecting different

alternatives of educational activity.2 It is the basis of practical change of the

present and is actualized in the form of research.3 It is the result of

prognostication (realized in a model, a conception, a program or a plan of

future pedagogic activity) that defines possible and effective educational

paths and interactions.4 Though modern researchers acknowledge the

importance of prognostication in teacher’s work,5 they have to admit that in

real school practice this activity is carried out without any scientific basis,

intuitively and sometimes in improper way.6 Thus in terms of upgrading

teachers’ qualification it is important to define the real level of readiness of a

teacher for realization of prognostic activity which creates the basis for its

future development

Literature review

In our research the substance of such category as “readiness for

prognostic activity” is realized in terms of learner-centred approach. It is

caused by the fact that teacher’s personality is manifested in prognostication

as an interdependent whole of stimulating and executive regulation.7

In scientific literature the term “readiness” is interpreted in different

ways. In our research the most important is the following one: a person’s

motivation for perfecting certain activity; a professional feature of a person

which is manifested in his or her positive attitude to pedagogic activity.8

Analyses of a certain position makes one agree that readiness is defined by

developed qualities of a person which are necessary for achieving the aims of

the activity. As far as we think of readiness as of an integral quality of a

person which lets a teacher consciously and independently define and realize

his or her strategy we need to specify that this category may have dual

character.9 On the one hand it reflects the state of the subject of the activity

before its realization, and on the other hand readiness is a basic component

of that activity.

We define prognostic activity as a mental state of a person when one

is conscious of the importance of this type of activity, of formal and standard

requirements made of the person from the side of prognostication, of ways

of fulfilling these requirements, and also of the ability to evaluate the process

and the results of this activity10.

Since readiness for prognostication is thought to be a “pre-start”

phase of the activity, the structure of this phenomenon should reflect values,

aims, developed skills and qualities of a person. We define four components

of readiness of a teacher for prognostication:

 Axiological – it integrates formal, universal and subjective values of

prognostic activity into a system.

 Cognitive – assumes some knowledge and idea of peculiarities and

conditions of prognostic activity, its requirements to the personality.

 Praxiologocal – is defined through knowing the ways and

techniques of prognostic activity.

 Reflective – is manifested in the evaluation of chances to realize the

prognosis.

Thus, readiness of a teacher for prognostication is a rather complex

notion. We need to specify that its shaping and development is only possible

through engaging teachers in the educational prognostication processes.11

That is why it is essential to identify and analyze the initial level of readiness,

as well as its dynamics and tendencies of its development.

Research methods

The aim of our research was to reveal the value of educational

prognostication in a school teacher’s activity, to study the level of readiness

of teachers for such an activity and also to define the need for their training

for its realization. To achieve this aim we used interdependent methods:

survey, interview, prognostically oriented personal tasks, introspection,

qualitative and quantitative interpretation of the results.

We conducted a large-scale research in 56 educational institutions of

Orenburg and the Orenburg region. The research lasted for five years (2014–

2018) and 1228 school teachers participated in it.

920 comprehensive school teachers took part in the survey. The

results helped us to understand the way teachers see the category of

“prognostic activity”. Also the research revealed the value of prognostication

in pedagogic activity and difficulties of implementing prognostication in a

real educational process.

The next step was an interview with the teachers. This method

helped us to extend and specify the information obtained in the survey. 48

teachers took part in the interview. The main aim of it was to evaluate the

initial level of readiness of the respondents to realize prognostication in their

pedagogic activity. This aim supposed certain analyses of what the teachers

said about the content, structure and forms of prognostic pedagogic activity.

To find out the level of development of cognitive and praxiological

components of readiness a set of prognostically oriented tasks was used. 260

teachers participated in this part of the research. The tasks were worked out

from typical professional situations connected with pedagogic prognoses:

generation of ideas, problem-oriented analyses, search for alternative

solutions of a problem, etc. The tasks were of different level (reproductive,

productive, creative). Here are some examples of the tasks:

Reproductive level. Complete the list of objects of prognostication in

school: educational process, innovative process, providing process.

Productive level. From the following list of documents choose the

ones which reflect the results of prognostic activity of a teacher: program of

development of an educational institution; yearly plan of an educational

institution; basic educational program of a school; syllabus on the subject;

plan of a lesson; fund of evaluative means; record of the meetings of

methodological council; work plan of a class master. Explain your choice.

Creative level. Look through the list of those who order educational

services: representatives of the regions and local communities; professional

educational institutions; representatives of various organizations, firms;

armed forces; scientists. Study the basis and content of educational order.

Define the main problems in interaction with these clients from a teacher’s

point of view. Speak about alternative solutions to these problems.

Method of introspection helped to organize analytical and reflective

activity of teachers basing on deep understanding of their own experience in

prognostication and ways of its further development. The main aim of the

introspection was to help the teachers see their own achievements in the field

of prognostication, as well as problems and their reasons which accompany

this activity. For the introspection the teachers were given two blank forms.

In the first form the teachers were to evaluate their level of knowledge in the

sphere of prognostication, in the second one – the level of skills in the sphere

of prognostication. They were offered four marks: high, medium, low,

completely absent.

The results helped us to: identify teachers’ attitude to prognostic

activity; define the factors which obstruct prognostication in the educational

process; find out teachers’ opinion about the necessity to form and develop

readiness for this activity; define teacher’s readiness for prognostication on

the whole and in details.

Results and discussion

1. The survey. In the survey the respondents were asked about the

essence of “prognostication in teacher’s activity”. The results were the

following: 79.5% of the respondents said that it was an important

component of conducting the educational process. 13% of the teachers

defined prognostication as a new scientific trend which was hard to evaluate.

7.5% of the respondents said that prognostication was an auxiliary tool for

planning the work during the academic year. And nobody chose the variant

that said that prognostication was just one more insignificant tendency in

teacher’s work. Despite the diversity of answers, we can make a conclusion

that the majority of teachers see prognostication as a specific pedagogic

activity which provides good results and quality of the educational process.

Then the respondents were asked to define potentials of

prognostication in the educational process. 75.5% of the respondents think

that prognostication helps to find alternative ways of teaching, pupils’

upbringing and development. 18.7% of the respondents believe that

prognostication helps to upgrade the quality of teacher’s work. And only

5.9% of the respondents see prognostication as a means of professional

development of a teacher and a way to raise competitive capacity of an

educational institution on the whole. The results of the survey indicate that

teachers have a limited notion about the potential of prognostication.

In one of the tasks the respondents were asked to agree or disagree

with the statement: “My teaching activity is based on prognostication”. Only

8% of the respondents agreed with the statement. In addition, they had to

define the factors which obstruct prognostication in teacher’s work. The

respondents underlined lack or absence of: knowledge about prognostication;

practical experience of implementing prognostication in real work; available

methodological tools of prognostication; support from colleagues in teaching

with the use of prognostication. The received data confirmed our opinion

about the necessity of working out the question of pedagogic prognostication

on the whole and in work of a separate teacher.

To the question connected with definition of the developed

prognosis only a few answers were received. The most frequent was:

“Prognosis – is a program, plan of actions”, “Prognosis – is the image of the

future activity documented in papers”. The received results indicate

insufficient knowledge of teachers about the variety of the existing forms and

types of pedagogic prognoses.

2. Interview. The main questions of the interview were: How do you

understand pedagogic prognostication? How do you differentiate

“prognostication”, “designing”, “constructing”, “modeling”, “planning”?

What place does prognostication take in the work of a school teacher? Can

you say that your own experience of prognostication was positive? Could you

describe your own professional activity and its perspectives using the basic

"Readiness of a School Teacher for Realization of Prognostic Activity:

Monitoring Results,

" Astra Salvensis, VI (2018), Special Issue, p. 59-65

 

notions of prognostics: prognostic background, prognostic diagnosis,

prognostic prospection, verification, prognosis correction, etc.? Is

prognostication necessary for teaching? What are the main objects of

prognostication in your opinion?

Analyses of the received results indicated the following. Being aware

of the importance of educational prognostication the majority of teachers

find their own prognostic competence insufficient. The biggest part of the

respondents (94.5%) only partially use prognostic tools in their work. Only

14.6% find their experience in prognostication successful. But in this group

only every fourth teacher was able to name the right consequence of

prognostic procedures and characterize the result of prognostic activity. All

the rest admitted that their prognostic actions were spontaneous and

unconscious. Among the reasons of their failures the teachers mention

insufficient training in this sphere and insufficient level of development of

their prognostic skills.