Билет № 2Functional styles of the English language.

Билет № 2Functional styles of the English language.

This theory of style study involves consideration of such notions as NORM and FUNCTION in their relation to STYLE.

Language means which we choose for communication depend on several factors, the most important among them being the situation of the communication act.

The most traditionally accepted functional styles are: the style of official and business communication, the style of scientific prose, the newspaper style, the publicistic style, the belletristic style, the conversational style.

In the English literary standard Galperin distinguishes the following major functional styles (FS): belles-lettres; publicistic literature; newspaper; scientific prose; official documents.

The belles-lettres FS has the following substyles: style of poetry; of emotive prose; of drama. The publicistic FS comprises the following substyles: style of essays; of oratory; of feature articles in newspapers and journals.

The newspaper FS falls into: style of brief news items and communiqu? s; of newspaper headlines; of notices and advertisements.

The scientific prose FS also has three divisions: style of humanitarian sciences; of military documents.

The official documents FS can be divided into four varieties: style of diplomatic documents; of business documents; of legal documents; of military documents.

The belles-lettres style rests on certain indispensable linguistic features which are:

1.Genuine, not trite, imagery, achieved by purely linguistic devices.

2.The use of words in contextual and very often in more than one dictionary meaning, or at least greatly influenced by the lexical environment.

3.A vocabulary which will reflect to a greater or lesser degree the author’s personal evaluation of things or phenomena.

4.A peculiar individual selection of vocabulary and syntax, a kind of lexical and syntactical idiosyncrasy.

The introduction of the typical features of colloquial language to a full degree (in plays) or lesser one (in emotive prose) or a slight degree, if any (in poems).

 

 

Билет № 3 The language of literature and the language of non-literature.

Official style

It is used in formal situations with the social roles of the communicants being equal or non-equal. The aim:

• to reach agreement between two contracting parties;

• to state the conditions binding two parties in an understanding.

The sub-styles are:

• style of business letters,

• style of legal documents,

• style of diplomacy,

• style of military documents.

. The Scientific Prose Style is employed in professional communication.

The style of scientific prose has 3 subdivisions:

• the style of humanitarian sciences,

• the style of exact sciences,

• the style of popular scientific prose.

The Publicist Style. famous for its explicit pragmatic function.

The general aim is to exert a constant and deep influence on public opinion, to convince the reader or the listener that the interpretation given by the writer or the speaker is the only correct one and to cause him to accept the point of view... not merely by logical argumentation, but by emotional appeal as well (brain-washing function). Sub-styles of the Publicist Style:

Oral form:

• the oratory/ public speeches;

• radio and TV commentary.

Written form:

• essays (moral, philosophical, literary; reviews in journals and magazines, pamphlets);

• journalistic articles (political, social, economic).

The Newspaper Functional Styles. The main aim is to inform and instruct the reader, to transfer the information objectively in oral and written form without introducing any subjective or emotional evaluation.

The Sub-styles of Newspaper Functional Style

• brief news items and communiques;

• advertisements and announcements;

• headlines;

• the editorial.

The Belles-lettres Style. Besides informative and persuasive functions, also found in other functional styles, the belles-lettres style has a unique task to impress the reader aesthetically.

So the main function of belles-lettres style is cognitive-aesthetic.

The Sub-styles of Belles-lettres Functional Style

• Poetry

• Emotive Prose

• The Drama

Colloquial style(non-liyerate) is the type of speech which is applicable both to the written and oral varieties of the speech. The main functions of this style: communicative, contacting and emotive. Following Arnold and Skrebnev we distinguish Literary and Familiar colloquial styles.

1. Can be used in written and spoken varieties: dialogue, monologue, personal letters, diaries, essays, articles, etc.

2. Prepared types of texts, such as letters, presentations, articles, interviews may have thought out and logical composition, to a certain extent determined by conventional forms.

3. Spontaneous types have a loose structure, relative coherence and uniformity of form and content.

 

Alliteration and assonance

Alliteration is a phonetic stylistic device which aims at imparting a melodic effect to the utterance. The essence of this device lies in the repetition of similar sounds, in particular consonant sounds, in close succession, particularly at the beginning of successive words: " The po ss essive in s tinct never s tands s till (J. Galsworthy) or, " D eep into the d arkness peering, long I stoo d there won d ering, fearing, d oubting, d reaming d reams no mortals ever d ared to d ream before" (E. A. Poe). Alliteration is also used to name the repetition of first letters: A pt A lliteration’s a rtful a id.(Charles Churchill).

Alliteration has a long tradition in English poetry as Germanic and Anglo-Saxon poems were organized with its help. (Beowulf)

 

17. Allegory. Onomatopoeia.

Onomatopoeia

Onomatopoeia is a combination of speech sounds which aims at imitating sounds produced in nature (wind, sea, thunder, etc. – splash, bubble, rustle, whistle) by things (machines or tools, etc. - buzz) by people (singing, laughter, yawning, roar, giggle) and animals (moo, bleat, croak - frog). Therefore the relation between onomatopoeia and the phenomenon it is supposed to represent is one of metonymy: that is it can be used in transferred meaning – tintinnabulation-the sound of bells

There are two varieties of onomatopoeia: direct and indirect.

Direct onomatopoeia is contained in words that imitate natural sounds, as thud, bowwow, ding-dong, buzz, bang, ‘cuckoo. These words have different degrees of ‘imitative quality. Some of them immediately bring to mind whatever it is that produces the sound. Others require some imagination to decipher it.

e.g. And now there came the chop-chop of wooden hammers.

Indirect onomatopoeia is a combination of sounds the aim of which is to make the sound of the utterance an echo of its sense. It is sometimes called "echo writing". Indirect onomatopoeia demands some mention of what makes the sound, as rustling of curtains in the following line. And the silken, sad, uncertain rustling of each purple curtain. An example is: And the silken, sad, uncertain rustling of each purple curtain" (E. A. Poe), where the repetition of the sound [s] actually produces the sound of the rustling of the curtain.

Indirect onomatopoeia is sometimes effectively used by repeating words which themselves are not onomatopoetic but they contribute to the general impact of the utterance: in the poem Boots by R. Kipling soldiers’ tread is shown -

We’re foot-slog-slog-slog-sloggin’ over Africa –

Foot-foot-foot-foot –sloggin’ over Africa.

(Boots – boots – boots – boots – moovi’ up and down again!)

Onomatopoeia helps to create the vivid portrayal of the situation described, and the phonemic structure of the word is important for the creation of expressive and emotive connotations.

Allegory is a figure of speech in which abstract ideas and principles are described in terms of characters, figures and events.

It can be employed in prose and poetry to tell a story with a purpose of teaching an idea and a principle or explaining an idea or a principle. The objective of its use is to preach some kind of a moral lesson

 

18. Stylistic use of foreign words and archaisms

This group, which may be called archaic proper, are words which are no longer recognizable in modern English, words that were in use in Old English and which have either dropped out of the language entirely or have changed in their appearance so much that they have become unrecognizable, e. g. troth (=faith); a losel (=a worthless, lazy fellow).

Both archaic and poetic words overlap and extend beyond the large circle "special literary vocabulary". This indicates that some of the words in these layers do not belong to the present-day English vocabulary.

The border lines between the groups are not distinct. In fact they interpenetrate. It is specially difficult to distinguish between obsolete and obsolescent words.

Another class of words here is historical words, denoting historical phenomena which are no more in use (such as "yeoman", "vassal", falconet"). They never disappear from the language. They have no synonyms, whereas archaic words have been replaced by modern synonyms.

Archaic words are used to create a realistic background to historical novels. They carry a special volume of information adding to the logical aspect of communication. They also appear in the poetic style as special terms and in the style of official documents to maintain the exactness of expression: hereby, aforesaid, therewith. The low predictability of an archaism when it appears in ordinary speech produces the necessary satiricaleffect.

Archaic words, word-forms and word-combinations are also used to create an elevated effect. Language is specially moulded to suit a solemn occasion: all kinds of stylistic devices are used, and among them is the

use of archaisms.

Stylistic functions of archaic words are based on the temporal perception of events described. Even when used in the terminological aspect, as for instance in law, archaic words will mark the utterance as being connected with something remote and the reader gets the impression that. he is faced with a time-honoured tradition.

 

19. Metaphor vs Metonymy

Metaphor and metonymy are similar in various aspects but the major difference is that if a metaphor substitutes a concept with another, a metonymy selects a related term. So, if metaphor is for substitution, metonymy is for association. For example, the sentence ‘he is a tiger in class’ is a metaphor. Here the word tiger is used in substitution for displaying an attribute of character of the person. The sentence ‘the tiger called his students to the meeting room’ is a metonymy. Here there is no substitution; instead the person is associated with a tiger for his nature.

So metonymy is a figure of speech. It is used in rhetoric where a thing is not referred by its name but with the associated word. A metaphor is an expression. This expression shows the similarity between two things on some aspects. In metonymy, the association of the word is based on contiguity, while in a metaphor; the substitution is based on similarity. If metaphor can be used to define the transference of relation between set of things to another, metonymy is used to define a word. Metonymy uses a single characteristic for the identification of a complex entity.

Another difference between metaphor and metonymy is that a metaphor acts by suppressing an idea while metonymy acts by combining ideas. But both metaphor and metonymy are used to express ideas which are greatly different from the original meaning in the psychic realm. When a person uses a metonymy, the qualities are not transferred from the original word to the metonymy. But in metaphor, when there is a comparison, the comparison is based on the qualities and some qualities are transferred from the original to the metaphor, in the process.

Metaphor is an extension to a word’s meaning on the account of similarity and metonymy is a way of extending the meaning of a word based on its association to another. Metaphor can be used to refer to a word in an object category to make it in the abstract semantic category. Metonymy can be used in informal or insulting situations as well. For example, the association of brain to a person means he is intelligent, and asshole is a metonymy for an idiotic person in an insulting manner.

So we can say that if metaphor is used for substitution and condensation, a metonymy is used for combination and displacement.

Summary:

1.Metaphor is used for substitution, while metonymy is used for association.
2.Metaphor can mean condensation and metonymy can mean displacement.
3.A metonymy acts by combining ideas while metaphor acts by suppressing ideas.
4.In a metaphor, the comparison is based on the similarities, while in metonymy the comparison is based on contiguity.

 

20. Semantic structure of English words. Connotations.

Firstly, every word combines lexical and grammatical meanings. E.g.: Father is a personal noun.

 

Secondly, many words not only refer to some object but have an aura of associations expressing the attitude of the speaker. They have not only denotative but connotative meaning as well.

 

E. g.: Daddy is a colloquial term of endearment.

 

Thirdly, the denotational meaning is segmented into semantic components or semes.

 

E.g.: Father is a male parent.

 

Fourthly, a word may be polysemantic, that is it may have several meanings, all interconnected and forming its semantic structure.

 

E. g.: Father may mean: ‘male parent’, ‘an ancestor’, ‘a founder or leader’, ‘a priest’.

 

It will be useful to remind the reader that the grammatical meaning is defined as an expression in speech of relationships between words based on contrastive features of arrangements in which they occur. The grammatical meaning is more abstract and more generalised than the lexical meaning, it unites words into big groups such as parts of speech or lexico-grammatical classes. It is recurrent in identical sets of individual forms of different words. E. g. parents, books, intentions, whose common element is the grammatical meaning of plurality. The interrelation of lexics and grammar has already been touched upon in § 1.3. This being a book on lexicology and not on grammar, it is permissible not to go into more details though some words on lexico-grammatical meanings are necessary.

 

The lexiсo-grammatical meaning is the common denominator of all the meanings of words belonging to a lexico-grammatical class of words, it is the feature according to which they are grouped together. Words in which abstraction and generalisation are so great that they can be lexical representatives of lexico-grammatical meanings and substitute any word of their class are called generic terms. For example the word matter is a generic term for material nouns, the word group — for collective nouns, the word person — for personal nouns.

 

21.

Simile. Metonymy.

Simile - а figure of speech in which two fundamentally unlike things are explicitly compared, usually in a phrase introduced by like or as.

Simile and Metaphor differ only in degree of stylistic refinement. The Simile, in which a comparison is made directly between two objects, belongs to an earlier stage of literary expression: it is the deliberate elaboration of a correspondence, often pursued for its own sake. But a Metaphor is the swift illumination of an equivalence. Two images, or an idea and an image, stand equal and opposite; clash together and respond significantly, surprising the reader with a sudden light."

Metonymies are frequently used in literature and in everyday speech. Ametonymy is a word or phrase that is used to stand in for another word. Sometimes a metonymy is chosen because it is a well-known characteristic of the word.

One famous example of metonymy is the saying, "The pen is mightier than the sword," which originally came from Edward Bulwer Lytton's play Richelieu. This sentence has two examples of metonymy:

§ The "pen" stands in for "the written word"

§ The "sword" stands in for "military aggression and force"

Metonymy is also the rhetorical strategy of describing something indirectly by referring to things around it, as in describing someone's clothing to characterize the individual

 

Repetition (all types).

Repetition as a stylistic device is a direct successor of repetition as an expressive language means, which serves to emphasize certain statements of the speaker, and so possesses considerable emotive force.

As to the position occupied by the repeated unit in the sentence or utterance, we shall mention four main types, most frequently occurring in English literature:

1) anaphora – the repetition of the first word of several succeeding sentences or clauses (a …, a …, a …);

2) epiphora – the repetition of the final word (… a, … a, … a);

3) anadiplosis or catch repetition – the repetition of the same unit (word or phrase) at the end of the preceding and at the beginning of the sentence (…a, a …); The combination of several catch repetitions produces a chain repetition.

4) framing or ring repetition – the repetition of the same unit at the beginning and at the end of the same sentence (a …, … a). Repetition emphasizes the most important part of the utterance, rendering the emotions of the speaker or showing his emotive attitude towards the object described.

I would like to say about anaphora and give some examples:

Anaphora (an-NAF-ruh): Figure of repetition that occurs when the first word or set of words in one sentence, clause, or phrase is/are repeated at or very near the beginning of successive sentences, clauses, or phrases; repetition of the initial word(s) over successive phrases or clauses.

Examples:

"That my heart has been troubled, that I have not sought this nomination, that I could not seek it in good conscience, that I would not seek it in honest self-appraisal, is not to say that I value it the less. Rather, it is that I revere the office of the Presidency of the United States."

-- Adlai Stevenson, 1952 DNC Presidential Nomination Acceptance Address

 

23. Parallelism. Chiasmus.

In grammar, parallelism, also known as parallel structure or parallel construction, is a balance within one or more sentences of similar phrases or clauses that have the same grammatical structure. The application of parallelism improves writing style and readability, and is thought to make sentences easier to process. Parallelism is often achieved using antithesis, anaphora, asyndeton, climax, epistrophe, and symploce.

Lacking parallelism: "The dog ran across the yard, jumped over the fence, and down the alley sprinted."

Parallel: "The dog ran across the yard, jumped over the fence, and sprinted down the alley."

Chiasmus comes from a Greek word meaning “crossed,” and it refers to a grammatical structure that inverts a previous phrase. That is, you say one thing, and then you say something very similar, but flipped on its head.

Chiasmus usually occurs on the sentence level, but can also be found in much broader structures – that is, you might have a paragraph that talks about a town, a state, a country, and the world, then goes back down in reverse order at the end. However, these structures are much harder to see (and their rhetorical value is pretty debatable).

Chiasmus is also called chiasm or chiasmic structure.

Example:

Ask not what your country can do for you; ask what you can do for your country.” (John F. Kennedy, 1961)

 

 

24. Ellipsis. One-member sentences. Aposiopesis. Apokoinu.

Ellipsis (plural ellipses; from the Ancient Greek: ἔλλειψις, élleipsis, "omission" or "falling short") is a series of dots (typically three, such as "…") that usually indicates an intentional omission of a word, sentence, or whole section from a text without altering its original meaning.

Depending on their context and placement in a sentence, ellipses can indicate an unfinished thought, a leading statement, a slight pause, an echoing voice, or a nervous or awkward silence. Aposiopesis is the use of an ellipsis to trail off into silence—for example: "But I thought he was..." When placed at the beginning or end of a sentence, the ellipsis can also inspire a feeling of melancholy or longing.

Aposiopesis (breaking-in-the-narrative)is a figure of speech wherein a sentence is deliberately broken off and left unfinished, the ending to be supplied by the imagination, giving an impression of unwillingness or inability to continue. An example would be the threat "Get out, or else—!"More exaples:

“Well, I say if I get a hold of you I'll—.”

"Unless I had believed I would see the goodness of the Lord in the land of the living …"

In linguistics, an apokoinu construction is a blend of two clauses through a lexical word which has two syntactical functions, one in each of the blended clauses. The clauses are connected asyndentically.

Usually the word common for both sentences is a predicative or an object in the first sentence and subject in the second one. As such constructions are not part of standard modern English, they serve a stylistic function of characterizing a character through his speech as uneducated.Examples:

"There was no breeze came through the door". (E. Hemingway)

"There was a door led into the kitchen". (E. Hemingway)

"This is the sword killed him." (Routledge Dictionary of Language and Linguistics)

 

 

Irony. Bathos.

Irony Definition

Irony is a figure of speech in which words are used in such a way that their intended meaning is different from the actual meaning of the words. It may also be a situation that may end up in quite a different way than what is generally anticipated. In simple words, it is a difference between the appearance and the reality.

Types of Irony

On the grounds of the above definition, we distinguish two basic kinds of irony i.e. verbal irony and situational irony. A verbal irony involves what one does not mean. When in response to a foolish idea, we say, “what a great idea!” it is a verbal irony. A situational irony occurs when, for instance, a man is chuckling at the misfortune of the other even when the same misfortune, in complete unawareness, is befalling him.

Common Examples of Irony:

· I posted a video on YouTube about how boring and useless YouTube is.

· The name of Britain’s biggest dog was “Tiny”.

· You laugh at a person who slipped stepping on a banana peel and the next thing you know, you slipped too.

· The butter is as soft as a marble piece.

· “Oh great! Now you have broken my new camera.”

Bathos Definition

Bathos is a literary term derived from a Greek word meaning “depth”. Bathos is when a writer or a poet falls into inconsequential and absurd metaphors, descriptions or ideas in an effort to be increasingly emotional or passionate.

Some confuse with pathos. The term was used by Alexander Pope to explain the blunders committed inadvertently by unskilled writers or poets. However, later on, the comic writers used it intentionally to create humorous effects. The most commonly used Bathos involves a sequence of items that descend from worthiness to silliness.

Example:

The British radio series I’m Sorry I’ll Read That Again also provides us with many Bathos examples. John Cleese and Jo Kendall appeared in the roles of a couple whose relationship is on the brink of failure.

MARY: John – once we had something that was pure, and wonderful, and good. What’s happened to it?

JOHN: You spent it all.

When Mary says “something pure and wonderful”, she is actually referring to the deep, sacred, noble form of love. However, the description is vague enough for John to manipulate.

 

Epithet.

Epithet Definition

Epithet is a descriptive literary device that describes a place, a thing or a person in such a way that it helps in making the characteristics of a person, thing or place more prominent than they actually are. Also, it is known as a by-name or descriptive title.

One can find many examples of epithet in Shakespeare’s works. Many of which were his own coinages. Like, “Thou mad mustachio purple-hued maltworms! (Henry IV) and “Death lies on her like an untimely frost. Upon the sweetest flower of all the field…” (Romeo and Juliet).

Types of Epithet:

· Kenning as Epithet:

Kenning examples may also be considered as epithet examples. Kenning is a type of an epithet, which is a two-word phrase that describes an object by employing metaphors.

· The Fixed Epithet:

Fixed epithets are found in epic poetry that involves the repetitive use of a phrase or word for the same object. Such as in Homer’s Odyssey, the wife is “prudent”, Odysseus himself as “many–minded” and their son Telemachus as “sound-minded”.

· Argumentative Epithet:

Expert orators use argumentative epithets. Short arguments use this type of epithet to give hints.

· Epithet used as Smear Word:

An epithet used as a smear word means a derogatory word or name for someone or something.

Example:

“The earth is crying-sweet,

And scattering-bright the air,

Eddying, dizzying, closing round,

With soft and drunken laughter …”

(Beauty and Beauty by Rupert Brooke)

In this excerpt, the description of the air and earth is enhanced by the usage of epithets: crying-sweet, scattering-bright, and soft and drunken laughter. These epithets help in developing imagery in the minds of readers.

 

 

Function of Climax

A climax, when used as a plot device, helps readers understand the significance of the rising action earlier to the point in the plot where the conflict reaches its peak. The Climax of the story makes readers mentally prepared for the resolution of the conflict. Hence, climax is important to the plot structure of a story. Moreover, climax is used as a stylistic device or a figure of speech to render balance and brevity to speech or writing. Being properly employed, it qualifies itself as a powerful tool that can instantly capture the undivided attention of listeners and readers alike. Hence, its importance cannot be underestimated.

 

 

Euphemism. Periphrasis.

Euphemism Definition

The term euphemism refers to polite, indirect expressions which replace words and phrases considered harsh and impolite or which suggest something unpleasant.

Euphemism is an idiomatic expression which loses its literal meanings and refers to something else in order to hide its unpleasantness. For example, “kick the bucket” is a euphemism that describes the death of a person. In addition, many organizations use the term “downsizing” for the distressing act of “firing” its employees.

Euphemism depends largely on the social context of the speakers and writers where they feel the need to replace certain words which may prove embarrassing for particular listeners or readers in a particular situation.

Definition of Periphrasis

Periphrasis originates from a Greek word periphrazein which means “talking around”. It is a stylistic device that can be defined as the use of excessive and longer words to convey a meaning which could have been conveyed with a shorter expression or in a few words. It is an indirect or roundabout way of writing about things. For example, using “I am going to” instead of “I will” is periphrasis. This is also called circumlocution but there is a slight difference between circumlocution and periphrasis.

Types of Periphrasis

Periphrasis is one of the types of circumlocution. There are two types of circumlocution, namely periphrasis and ambage. Periphrasis is a roundabout explanation of something but ambage is an indirect and ambiguous way of expressing things or ideas.

Difference between Paraphrasis and Periphrasis

Para means beside whereas peri means around. In paraphrasing, ambiguous statements are restated in order to enhance the meanings, while periphrasis is a measured roundabout way of expressing something.

Example:

«When that fell arrest

Without all bail shall carry me away.»

(Sonnet 74 by William Shakespeare)

In this extract, Shakespeare is explaining death and its consequences. He has used an indirect way of illustrating death as “when that fell.” Here it means, when death comes, no one would be able to save him.

 

Hyperbole, litotes.

Hyperbole, derived from a Greek word meaning “over-casting” is a figure of speech, which involves an exaggeration of ideas for the sake of emphasis.

It is a device that we employ in our day-to-day speech. For instance, when you meet a friend after a long time, you say, “Ages have passed since I last saw you”. You may not have met him for three or four hours or a day, but the use of the word “ages” exaggerates this statement to add emphasis to your wait. Therefore, a hyperbole is an unreal exaggeration to emphasize the real situation. Some other common Hyperbole examples: My grandmother is as old as the hills. Your suitcase weighs a ton! I am dying of shame.

Functions of Hyperbole

In our daily conversation, we use hyperbole to emphasize for an amusing effect. However, in literaturea writer or a poet makes common human feelings remarkable and intense to such an extent that they do not remain ordinary. In literature, usage of hyperbole develops contrasts. When one thing is described with an over-statement and the other thing is presented normally, a striking contrast is developed. This technique is employed to catch the reader’s attention.

Litotes

Litotes, derived from a Greek word meaning “simple”, is a figure of speech which employs an understatement by using double negatives or, in other words, positive statement is expressed by negating its opposite expressions.

For example, using the expression “not too bad” for “very good” is an understatement as well as a double negative statement that confirms a positive idea by negating the opposite. Similarly, saying “She is not a beauty queen,” means “She is ugly” or saying “I am not as young as I used to be” in order to avoid saying “I am old”. Litotes, therefore, is an intentional use of understatement that renders an ironical effect.

Function of Litotes

Litotes uses ironical understatement in order to emphasize an idea or situation rather than minimizing its importance. It rather discovers a unique way to attract people’s attention to an idea and that is by ignoring it.

This is the best that has ever been said about litotes – that to ignore an object and still talk about it in a negative way is the best way to make it appear important and prominent.

In literature, writers and poets use this type of figure of speech in their texts in order to communicate novel ideas to readers vividly.

“I am not unaware how the productions of the Grub Street brotherhood have of late years fallen under many prejudices.” (Jonathan Swift, A Tale of a Tub)

Antithesis. Oxymoron.

Antithesis Definition

Antithesis, literal meaning opposite, is a rhetorical device in which two opposite ideas are put together in a sentence to achieve a contrasting effect.

Antithesis emphasizes the idea of contrast by parallel structures of the contrasted phrases or clauses, i.e. the structures of phrases and clauses are similar in order to draw the attention of the listeners or readers. For example:

“Setting foot on the moon may be a small step for a man but a giant step for mankind.”

The use of contrasting ideas, “a small step” and “a giant step”, in the sentence above emphasizes the significance of one of the biggest landmarks of human history.

In literature, writers employ antithesis not only in sentences but also in characters and events.

Function of Antithesis

Thus, it conveys meaning more vividly than ordinary speech. When contrasting ideas are brought together, the idea is expressed more emphatically.

As a literary device, antithesis makes contrasts in order to examine pros and cons of a subject under discussion and helps to bring forth judgment on that particular subject.

Oxymoron

Oxymoron is a figure of speech in which two opposite ideas are joined to create an effect. contrasting meanings, e.g. “cruel kindness” or “living death”. However, the contrasting words/phrases are not always glued together. The contrasting ideas may be spaced out in a sentence, e.g. “In order to lead, you must walk behind.”

Common Examples of Oxymoron

• Open secret
• Tragic comedy
• Seriously funny
• Awfully pretty
• Foolish wisdom
• Original copies
• Liquid gas

The above oxymoron examples produce a comical effect. Thus, it is a lot of fun to use them in your everyday speech.

Function of Oxymoron

Oxymoron produces a dramatic effect in both prose as well as poetry. For instance, when we read or hear the famous oxymoron, “sweet sorrow”, crafted by Shakespeare, it appeals to us instantly. It provokes our thoughts and makes us ponder on the meaning of contradicting ideas. This apparently confusing phrase expresses a complex nature of love that could never be expressed through any other simple expression.

In everyday conversation people do not use oxymoron to make some deep statement like the one mentioned above. Instead, they do it to show wit. The use of oxymoron adds flavor to their speech.

 

 

Personification Definition

Personification is a figure of speech in which a thing, an idea or an animal is given human attributes. The non-human objects are portrayed in such a way that we feel they have the ability to act like human beings.

For example, when we say, “The sky weeps” we are giving the sky the ability to cry, which is a human quality. Thus, we can say that the sky has been personified in the given sentence.

Function of Personification

Personification adds vividness to expressions as we always look at the world from a human perspective. Writers and poets rely on personification to bring inanimate things to life, so that their nature and actions are understood in a better way. Because it is easier for us to relate to something that is human or that possesses human traits. Its use encourages us to develop a perspective that is new as well as creative.

 

 

Zeugma and pun.

Zeugma Definition Zeugma, from Greek “yoking” or “bonding”, is a figure of speech in which a word, usually a verb or an adjective, applies to more than one noun, blending together grammatically and logically different ideas. For instance, in a sentence “John lost his coat and his temper”, the verb “lost” applies to both noun “coat” and “temper”. Losing a coat and losing temper are logically and grammatically different ideas that are brought together in the above-mentioned sentence. Zeugma, when used skillfully, produces a unique artistic effect making the literary works more interesting and effective as it serves to adorn expressions, and to add emphasis to ideas in impressive style.

Histories make men wise; poets, witty; the mathematics, subtle; natural philosophy, deep; moral, grave; logic and rhetoric, able to contend. (Francis Bacon, Of Studies)

Function of Zeugma it adds flavor to literary texts as it helps produce a dramatic effect, which could possibly be shocking in its result.

Pun Definition A pun is a play on words in which a humorous effect is produced by using a word that suggests two or more meanings or by exploiting similar sounding words having different meanings. Humorous effects created by puns depend upon the ambiguities words entail. The ambiguities arise mostly in homophones and homonyms. For instance, in a sentence “A happy life depends on a liver”, liver can refer to the organ liver or simply the person who lives. Similarly, in a famous saying “Atheism is a non-prophet institution” the word “prophet” is used instead of “profit” to produce a humorous effect. Common Pun Examples In everyday life, pun examples are found intentionally or accidentally used in jokes and witty remarks. Such as: The life of a patient of hypertension is always at steak. Why do we still have troops in Germany? To keep the Russians in Czech. A horse is a very stable animal. Time flies like an arrow. Fruit flies like a banana. An elephant’s opinion carries a lot of weight. What is the difference between a conductor and a teacher? The conductor minds the train and a teacher trains the mind.

 

 

Билет № 2Functional styles of the English language.

This theory of style study involves consideration of such notions as NORM and FUNCTION in their relation to STYLE.

Language means which we choose for communication depend on several factors, the most important among them being the situation of the communication act.

The most traditionally accepted functional styles are: the style of official and business communication, the style of scientific prose, the newspaper style, the publicistic style, the belletristic style, the conversational style.

In the English literary standard Galperin distinguishes the following major functional styles (FS): belles-lettres; publicistic literature; newspaper; scientific prose; official documents.

The belles-lettres FS has the following substyles: style of poetry; of emotive prose; of drama. The publicistic FS comprises the following substyles: style of essays; of oratory; of feature articles in newspapers and journals.

The newspaper FS falls into: style of brief news items and communiqu? s; of newspaper headlines; of notices and advertisements.

The scientific prose FS also has three divisions: style of humanitarian sciences; of military documents.

The official documents FS can be divided into four varieties: style of diplomatic documents; of business documents; of legal documents; of military documents.

The belles-lettres style rests on certain indispensable linguistic features which are:

1.Genuine, not trite, imagery, achieved by purely linguistic devices.

2.The use of words in contextual and very often in more than one dictionary meaning, or at least greatly influenced by the lexical environment.

3.A vocabulary which will reflect to a greater or lesser degree the author’s personal evaluation of things or phenomena.

4.A peculiar individual selection of vocabulary and syntax, a kind of lexical and syntactical idiosyncrasy.

The introduction of the typical features of colloquial language to a full degree (in plays) or lesser one (in emotive prose) or a slight degree, if any (in poems).